Английская Википедия:Freeman Dyson

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Infobox scientist Шаблон:Quantum field theory Шаблон:Modern physics Freeman John Dyson Шаблон:Post-nominals (15 December 1923 – 28 February 2020)[1] was a British-American theoretical physicist and mathematician known for his works in quantum field theory, astrophysics, random matrices, mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics, condensed matter physics, nuclear physics, and engineering.Шаблон:Efn[2] He was professor emeritus in the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton and a member of the board of sponsors of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.[3]

Dyson originated several concepts that bear his name, such as Dyson's transform, a fundamental technique in additive number theory,Шаблон:Sfn which he developed as part of his proof of Mann's theorem;Шаблон:Sfn the Dyson tree, a hypothetical genetically engineered plant capable of growing in a comet; the Dyson series, a perturbative series where each term is represented by Feynman diagrams; the Dyson sphere, a thought experiment that attempts to explain how a space-faring civilization would meet its energy requirements with a hypothetical megastructure that completely encompasses a star and captures a large percentage of its power output; and Dyson's eternal intelligence, a means by which an immortal society of intelligent beings in an open universe could escape the prospect of the heat death of the universe by extending subjective time to infinity while expending only a finite amount of energy.

Dyson disagreed with the scientific consensus on climate change. He believed that some of the effects of increased COШаблон:Sub levels are favourable and not taken into account by climate scientists, such as increased agricultural yield, and further that the positive benefits of COШаблон:Sub likely outweigh the negative effects.Шаблон:Sfn[4]Шаблон:Sfn He was skeptical about the simulation models used to predict climate change, arguing that political efforts to reduce causes of climate change distract from other global problems that should take priority.

Biography

Early life

Dyson was born on 15 December 1923, in Crowthorne in Berkshire, England.[1] He was the son of Mildred (Шаблон:Née) and the composer George Dyson, who was later knighted. His mother had a law degree, and after Dyson was born she worked as a social worker.Шаблон:Sfn Dyson had one sibling, his older sister, Alice, who remembered him as a boy surrounded by encyclopedias and always calculating on sheets of paper.Шаблон:Sfn At the age of four he tried to calculate the number of atoms in the Sun.Шаблон:Sfn As a child, he showed an interest in large numbers and in the solar system, and was strongly influenced by the book Men of Mathematics by Eric Temple Bell.Шаблон:Sfn Politically, Dyson said he was "brought up as a socialist".Шаблон:Sfn

From 1936 to 1941 Dyson was a scholar at Winchester College, where his father was Director of Music.[1] At the age of 17 he studied pure mathematics with Abram Besicovitch as his tutor[5] at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he won a scholarship at age 15. During this stay, Dyson also practiced night climbing on the university buildings,Шаблон:Sfn and once walked from Cambridge to London in a day with his friend Oscar Hahn, nephew of Kurt Hahn, who was a wheelchair user due to polio.Шаблон:Sfn

At the age of 19 he was assigned to war work in the Operational Research Section (ORS) of RAF Bomber Command, where he developed analytical methods for calculating the ideal density for bomber formations to help the Royal Air Force bomb German targets during the Second World War.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn After the war, Dyson was readmitted to Trinity College, where he obtained a BA degree in mathematics.Шаблон:Sfn[6] From 1946 to 1949 he was a fellow of his college, occupying rooms just below those of the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein, who resigned his professorship in 1947.Шаблон:Sfn

In 1947 Dyson published two papers in number theory.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Friends and colleagues described him as shy and self-effacing, with a contrarian streak that his friends found refreshing but intellectual opponents found exasperating.[1] "I have the sense that when consensus is forming like ice hardening on a lake, Dyson will do his best to chip at the ice", Steven Weinberg said of him. His friend the neurologist and author Oliver Sacks said: "A favourite word of Freeman's about doing science and being creative is the word 'subversive'. He feels it's rather important not only to be not orthodox, but to be subversive, and he's done that all his life."Шаблон:Sfn

Career in the United States

On G. I. Taylor's advice and recommendation, Dyson moved to the United States in 1947 as a Commonwealth Fellow for postgraduate study with Hans Bethe at Cornell University (1947–1948).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn There he made the acquaintance of Richard Feynman. Dyson recognized the brilliance of the flamboyant American and worked with him. He then moved to the Institute for Advanced Study (1948–1949), before returning to England (1949–51), where he was a research fellow at the University of Birmingham.[7] In 1949, Dyson demonstrated the equivalence of two formulations of quantum electrodynamics (QED): Richard Feynman's diagrams and the operator method developed by Julian Schwinger and Shin'ichirō Tomonaga. He was the first person after their creator to appreciate the power of Feynman diagrams and his paper written in 1948 and published in 1949 was the first to make use of them. He said in that paper that Feynman diagrams were not just a computational tool but a physical theory and developed rules for the diagrams that completely solved the renormalization problem. Dyson's paper and also his lectures presented Feynman's theories of QED in a form that other physicists could understand, facilitating the physics community's acceptance of Feynman's work. J. Robert Oppenheimer, in particular, was persuaded by Dyson that Feynman's new theory was as valid as Schwinger's and Tomonaga's. Also in 1949, in related work, Dyson invented the Dyson series. It was this paper that inspired John Ward to derive his celebrated Ward–Takahashi identity.Шаблон:Sfn

Dyson joined the faculty at Cornell as a physics professor in 1951, though he still had no doctorate. In December 1952, Oppenheimer, the director of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, offered Dyson a lifetime appointment at the institute, "for proving me wrong", in Oppenheimer's words.Шаблон:Sfn Dyson remained at the Institute until the end of his career.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In 1957 he became a US citizen.Шаблон:Efn[6][8] From 1957 to 1961 Dyson worked on Project Orion,Шаблон:Sfn which proposed the possibility of space-flight using nuclear pulse propulsion. A prototype was demonstrated using conventional explosives, but the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty, in which Dyson was involved and which he supported,Шаблон:Sfn permitted only underground nuclear weapons testing,[9] and the project was abandoned in 1965.Шаблон:Sfn

In 1958 Dyson was a member of the design team under Edward Teller for TRIGA, a small, inherently safe nuclear reactor used throughout the world in hospitals and universities for the production of medical isotopes.Шаблон:Sfn

In 1966, independently of Elliott H. Lieb and Walter Thirring, Dyson and Andrew Lenard published a paper proving that the Pauli exclusion principle plays the main role in the stability of matter.Шаблон:Sfn Hence it is not the electromagnetic repulsion between outer-shell orbital electrons that prevents two stacked wood blocks from coalescing into a single piece, but the exclusion principle applied to electrons and protons that generates the classical macroscopic normal force. In condensed matter physics, Dyson also analysed the phase transition of the Ising model in one dimension and spin waves.Шаблон:Sfn

Dyson also did work in a variety of topics in mathematics, such as topology, analysis, number theory and random matrices.Шаблон:Sfn In 1973 the number theorist Hugh Lowell Montgomery was visiting the Institute for Advanced Study and had just made his pair correlation conjecture concerning the distribution of the zeros of the Riemann zeta function. He showed his formula to the mathematician Atle Selberg, who said that it looked like something in mathematical physics and that Montgomery should show it to Dyson, which he did. Dyson recognized the formula as the pair correlation function of the Gaussian unitary ensemble, which physicists have studied extensively. This suggested that there might be an unexpected connection between the distribution of primes (2, 3, 5, 7, 11, ...) and the energy levels in the nuclei of heavy elements such as uranium.Шаблон:Sfn

Around 1979 Dyson worked with the Institute for Energy Analysis on climate studies. This group, under Alvin Weinberg's direction, pioneered multidisciplinary climate studies, including a strong biology group. Also during the 1970s, Dyson worked on climate studies conducted by the JASON defense advisory group.Шаблон:Sfn

Dyson retired from the Institute for Advanced Study in 1994.[10] In 1998 he joined the board of the Solar Electric Light Fund. Шаблон:As of he was president of the Space Studies Institute, the space research organization founded by Gerard K. O'Neill; as of 2013 he was on its board of trustees.[11] Dyson was a longtime member of the JASON group.Шаблон:Sfn

Dyson won numerous scientific awards, but never a Nobel Prize. Nobel physics laureate Steven Weinberg said that the Nobel committee "fleeced" Dyson, but Dyson remarked in 2009, "I think it's almost true without exception if you want to win a Nobel Prize, you should have a long attention span, get hold of some deep and important problem and stay with it for ten years. That wasn't my style."Шаблон:Sfn Dyson was a regular contributor to The New York Review of Books, and published a memoir, Maker of Patterns: An Autobiography Through Letters in 2018.Шаблон:Sfn

In 2012 Dyson published (with William H. Press) a fundamental new result about the prisoner's dilemma in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.Шаблон:Sfn He wrote a foreword to a treatise on psychic phenomena in which he concluded that "ESP is real... but cannot be tested with the clumsy tools of science".Шаблон:Sfn

Personal life and death

Dyson married his first wife, the Swiss mathematician Verena Huber, on 11 August 1950. They had two children, Esther and George, before divorcing in 1958. In November 1958 he married Imme Jung (born 1936) and they had four more children: Dorothy, Mia, Rebecca, and Emily Dyson.Шаблон:Sfn

Dyson's eldest daughter, Esther, is a digital technology consultant and investor; she has been called "the most influential woman in all the computer world".Шаблон:Sfn His son George is a historian of science,Шаблон:Sfn one of whose books is Project Orion: The Atomic Spaceship 1957–1965.Шаблон:Sfn

Dyson died on 28 February 2020 at a hospital near Princeton, New Jersey, from complications following a fall. He was 96.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Concepts

Biotechnology and genetic engineering

Шаблон:See also Dyson admitted his record as a prophet was mixed, but thought it is better to be wrong than vague, and that in meeting the world's material needs, technology must be beautiful and cheap.

Шаблон:Blockquote

Dyson coined the term "green technologies", based on biology instead of physics or chemistry, to describe new species of microorganisms and plants designed to meet human needs. He argued that such technologies would be based on solar power rather than the fossil fuels whose use he saw as part of what he calls "gray technologies" of industry. He believed that genetically engineered crops, which he described as green, can help end rural poverty, with a movement based in ethics to end the inequitable distribution of wealth on the planet.Шаблон:Sfn

The Origin of Life

Шаблон:Main Dyson favored the dual origin theory: that life first formed as cells, then enzymes, and finally, much later, genes. This was first propounded by the Russian biochemist, Alexander Oparin.Шаблон:Sfn J. B. S. Haldane developed the same theory independently.Шаблон:Sfn In Dyson's version of the theory, life evolved in two stages, widely separated in time. Because of the biochemistry he regards it as too unlikely that genes could have developed fully blown in one process. Current cells contain adenosine triphosphate or ATP and adenosine 5'-monophosphate or AMP, which greatly resemble each other but have completely different functions. ATP transports energy around the cell, and AMP is part of RNA and the genetic apparatus. Dyson proposed that in a primitive early cell containing ATP and AMP, RNA and replication came into existence only because of the similarity between AMP and RNA. He suggested that AMP was produced when ATP molecules lost two of their phosphate radicals, and then one cell somewhere performed Eigen's experiment and produced RNA.Шаблон:Sfn

There is no direct evidence for the dual origin theory, because once genes developed, they took over, obliterating all traces of the earlier forms of life. In the first origin, the cells were probably just drops of water held together by surface tension, teeming with enzymes and chemical reactions, and having a primitive kind of growth or replication. When the liquid drop became too big, it split into two drops. Many complex molecules formed in these "little city economies" and the probability that genes would eventually develop in them was much greater than in the prebiotic environment.Шаблон:Sfn

Файл:Dyson rings.PNG
Artist's concept of Dyson rings, forming a stable Dyson swarm, or "Dyson sphere"

Dyson sphere

Шаблон:Main In 1960 Dyson wrote a short paper for the journal Science titled "Search for Artificial Stellar Sources of Infrared Radiation".Шаблон:Sfn In it he speculated that a technologically advanced extraterrestrial civilization might surround its native star with artificial structures to maximize the capture of the star's energy. Eventually the civilization would enclose the star, intercepting electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths from visible light downward and radiating waste heat outward as infrared radiation. One method of searching for extraterrestrial civilizations would be to look for large objects radiating in the infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum.

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Dyson conceived that such structures would be clouds of asteroid-sized space habitats, though science fiction writers have preferred a solid structure: either way, such an artifact is often called a Dyson sphere, although Dyson used the term "shell". Dyson said that he used the term "artificial biosphere" in the article to mean a habitat, not a shape. The general concept of such an energy-transferring shell had been created decades earlier by science fiction writer Olaf Stapledon in his 1937 novel Star Maker, a source which Dyson credited publicly.[12]Шаблон:Efn

Dyson tree

Шаблон:Main Dyson also proposed the creation of a Dyson tree, a genetically engineered plant capable of growing inside a comet. He suggested that comets could be engineered to contain hollow spaces filled with a breathable atmosphere, thus providing self-sustaining habitats for humanity in the outer Solar System.

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Space colonies

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Dyson was interested in space travel since he was a child, reading such science fiction classics as Olaf Stapledon's Star Maker. As a young man, he worked for General Atomics on the nuclear-powered Orion spacecraft. He hoped Project Orion would put men on Mars by 1965, Saturn by 1970. For a quarter-century Dyson was unhappy about how the government conducts space travel: Шаблон:Blockquote

Dyson still hoped for cheap space travel, but was resigned to waiting for private entrepreneurs to develop something new and inexpensive.

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Space exploration

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Dyson's eternal intelligence

Шаблон:Main Dyson proposed that an immortal group of intelligent beings could escape the prospect of heat death by extending time to infinity while expending only a finite amount of energy.Шаблон:Sfn This is also known as the Dyson scenario.Шаблон:Sfn

Dyson's transform

Шаблон:Main His concept "Dyson's transform" led to one of the most important lemmas of Olivier Ramaré's theorem: that every even integer can be written as a sum of no more than six primes.Шаблон:Sfn

Dyson series

Шаблон:Main The Dyson series, the formal solution of an explicitly time-dependent Schrödinger equation by iteration, and the corresponding Dyson time-ordering operator <math>\mathcal T\,,</math> an entity of basic importance in the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics, are also named after Dyson.[13]

Файл:Freeman dyson.jpg
Freeman Dyson in 2007 at the Institute for Advanced Study

Quantum physics and prime numbers

Dyson and Hugh Montgomery discovered an intriguing connection between quantum physics and Montgomery's pair correlation conjecture about the zeros of the zeta function. The primes 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19,... are described by the Riemann zeta function, and Dyson had previously developed a description of quantum physics based on m by m arrays of totally random numbers.Шаблон:Sfn Montgomery and Dyson discovered that the eigenvalues of these matrices are spaced apart in exactly the same manner as Montgomery conjectured for the nontrivial zeros of the zeta function. Andrew Odlyzko has verified the conjecture on a computer, using his Odlyzko–Schönhage algorithm to calculate many zeros.Шаблон:Sfn

There are in nature one, two, and three dimensional quasicrystals. Mathematicians define a quasicrystal as a set of discrete points whose Fourier transform is also a set of discrete points. Odlyzko has done extensive computations of the Fourier transform of the nontrivial zeros of the zeta function, and they seem to form a one-dimensional quasicrystal. This would in fact follow from the Riemann hypothesis.Шаблон:Sfn

Rank of a partition

Файл:Rank of a partition.svg
The rank of a partition, shown as its Young diagram

Шаблон:Main In number theory and combinatorics, the rank of an integer partition is a certain integer associated with the partition. Dyson introduced the concept in a paper published in the journal Eureka. It was presented in the context of a study of certain congruence properties of the partition function discovered by the mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan.Шаблон:Sfn

Crank of a partition

Шаблон:Main In number theory, the crank of a partition is a certain integer associated with the partition. Dyson first introduced the term without a definition in a 1944 paper in a journal published by the Mathematics Society of Cambridge University.Шаблон:Sfn He then gave a list of properties this yet-to-be-defined quantity should have. In 1988, George E. Andrews and Frank Garvan discovered a definition for the crank satisfying the properties Dyson had hypothesized.Шаблон:Sfn

Astrochicken

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Файл:JohnvonNeumann-LosAlamos.gif
John von Neumann

Astrochicken is the name given to a thought experiment Dyson expounded in his book Disturbing the Universe (1979). He contemplated how humanity could build a small, self-replicating automaton that could explore space more efficiently than a crewed craft could. He attributed the general idea to John von Neumann, based on a lecture von Neumann gave in 1948 titled The General and Logical Theory of Automata. Dyson expanded on von Neumann's automata theories and added a biological component.Шаблон:Sfn

Lumpers and splitters

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Dyson suggested that philosophers can be broadly, if simplistically, divided into lumpers and splitters. These roughly correspond to Platonists, who regard the world as made up of ideas, and materialists, who imagine it divided into atoms.Шаблон:Sfn

Views

Climate change

Dyson agreed that technically humans and additional COШаблон:Sub emissions contribute to warming. However, he felt that the benefits of additional COШаблон:Sub outweighed any associated negative effects.[4] He said that in many ways increased atmospheric carbon dioxide is beneficial,Шаблон:Sfn and that it is increasing biological growth, agricultural yields and forests.[4] He believed that existing simulation models of climate change fail to account for some important factors, and that the results thus contain too great a margin of error to reliably predict trends.Шаблон:Sfn[14] He argued that political efforts to reduce the causes of climate change distract from other global problems that should take priority,[15] and viewed the acceptance of climate change as comparable to religion.[4]

In 2009, Dyson criticised James Hansen's climate-change activism. "The person who is really responsible for this overestimate of global warming is Jim Hansen. He consistently exaggerates all the dangers... Hansen has turned his science into ideology."Шаблон:Sfn Hansen responded that Dyson "doesn't know what he's talking about... If he's going to wander into something with major consequences for humanity and other life on the planet, then he should first do his homework- which he obviously has not done on global warming".Шаблон:Sfn Dyson replied that "[m]y objections to the global warming propaganda are not so much over the technical facts, about which I do not know much, but it's rather against the way those people behave and the kind of intolerance to criticism that a lot of them have."Шаблон:Sfn Dyson stated in an interview that the argument with Hansen was exaggerated by The New York Times, stating that he and Hansen are "friends, but we don't agree on everything."[16]

Since originally taking interest in climate studies in the 1970s, Dyson suggested that carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere could be controlled by planting fast-growing trees. He calculated that it would take a trillion trees to remove all carbon from the atmosphere.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In a 2014 interview he said, "What I'm convinced of is that we don't understand climate… It will take a lot of very hard work before that question is settled."Шаблон:Sfn

Dyson was a member of the academic advisory council of the Global Warming Policy Foundation. Шаблон:Sfn

Warfare and weapons

At RAF Bomber Command, Dyson and colleagues proposed removing two gun turrets from Avro Lancaster bombers, to cut the catastrophic losses due to German fighters in the Battle of Berlin. A Lancaster without turrets could fly Шаблон:Convert faster and be much more maneuverable.

Шаблон:Blockquote

On hearing the news of the bombing of Hiroshima:

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In 1967, in his capacity as a military adviser, Dyson wrote an influential paper on the issue of possible US use of tactical nuclear weapons in the Vietnam War. When a general said in a meeting, "I think it might be a good idea to throw in a nuke now and then, just to keep the other side guessing…"Шаблон:Sfn Dyson became alarmed and obtained permission to write a report on the pros and cons of using such weapons from a purely military point of view. (This report, Tactical Nuclear Weapons in Southeast Asia, published by the Institute for Defense Analyses, was obtained, with some redactions, by the Nautilus Institute for Security and Sustainability under the Freedom of Information act in 2002.)Шаблон:Sfn It was sufficiently objective that both sides in the debate based their arguments on it. Dyson says that the report showed that, even from a narrow military point of view, the US was better off not using nuclear weapons.Шаблон:Sfn

Dyson opposed the Vietnam War, the Gulf War and the invasion of Iraq. He supported Barack Obama in the 2008 US presidential election and The New York Times described him as a political liberal.Шаблон:Sfn He was one of 29 leading US scientists who wrote Obama a strongly supportive letter about his administration's 2015 nuclear deal with Iran.Шаблон:Sfn

Science and religion

Dyson was raised in what he described as a "watered-down Church of England Christianity".Шаблон:Sfn He was a nondenominational Christian and attended various churches, from Presbyterian to Roman Catholic. Regarding doctrinal or Christological issues, he said, "I am neither a saint nor a theologian. To me, good works are more important than theology."[17]

Шаблон:Blockquote

Dyson partially disagreed with the remark by his fellow physicist Steven Weinberg that "With or without religion, good people can behave well and bad people can do evil; but for good people to do evil – that takes religion."Шаблон:Sfn

Шаблон:Blockquote

Dyson identified himself as agnostic about some of the specifics of his faith.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn For example, in reviewing The God of Hope and the End of the World by John Polkinghorne, Dyson wrote:

Шаблон:Blockquote

In The God Delusion (2006), evolutionary biologist and atheist activist Richard Dawkins singled out Dyson for accepting the Templeton Prize in 2000: "It would be taken as an endorsement of religion by one of the world's most distinguished physicists."Шаблон:Sfn In 2000, Dyson declared that he was a (non-denominational) Christian,[17] and he disagreed with Dawkins on several subjects, such as that group selection is less important than individual selection on the subject of evolution.[18]

Named after Dyson

Honors and awards

Publications

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Documentaries

References

Notes

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Citations

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Sources

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Further reading

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External links

Шаблон:Wikiquote Шаблон:Commons category Шаблон:Library resources box

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By Dyson

About Dyson

Шаблон:Wolf Prize in Physics Шаблон:Matteucci Medallists Шаблон:Templeton Prize Laureates Шаблон:John von Neumann Lecturers

Шаблон:Authority control

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  2. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок brit не указан текст
  3. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок thebulletin.org не указан текст
  4. ↑ 4,0 4,1 4,2 4,3 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок CTM27 не указан текст
  5. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок MathsatCambs не указан текст
  6. ↑ 6,0 6,1 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок ias.edu не указан текст
  7. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок acap не указан текст
  8. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок britannica.com не указан текст
  9. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок un.org не указан текст
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  13. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок ocw.mit.edu не указан текст
  14. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок heretic не указан текст
  15. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок um не указан текст
  16. ↑ Шаблон:Cite video
  17. ↑ 17,0 17,1 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок edge68 не указан текст
  18. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок dawkins_dyson не указан текст
  19. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок frs не указан текст
  20. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  21. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  22. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  23. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок 1970PhT не указан текст
  24. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Harvey не указан текст
  25. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Wolf не указан текст
  26. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  27. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок GoldenPlate не указан текст
  28. ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
  29. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок HonFell не указан текст
  30. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Fritz не указан текст
  31. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Rockefeller не указан текст
  32. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Fermi не указан текст
  33. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Telluride не указан текст
  34. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок AdPortas не указан текст
  35. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  36. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок aub.edu.lb не указан текст
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