Английская Википедия:Fumarole mineral

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Файл:Tazieffite - Mutnovsky volcano, Kamchatka, Russia (Color SEM).jpg

Fumarole formation of Шаблон:Ill acicular crystals (black) at Mutnovsky, Kamchatka. An electron micrograph, colour enhanced by optical microscopy, depicted width: 700 microns.

Fumarole minerals (or fumarolic minerals) are minerals which are deposited by fumarole exhalations. They form when gases and compounds desublimate or precipitate out of condensates, forming mineral deposits. They are mostly associated with volcanoes (as volcanic sublimate or fumarolic sublimate) following deposition from volcanic gas during an eruption or discharge from a volcanic vent or fumarole, but have been encountered on burning coal deposits as well. They can be black or multicoloured and are often unstable upon exposure to the atmosphere.

Native sulfur is a common sublimate mineral and various halides, sulfides and sulfates occur in this environment associated with fumaroles and eruptions. A number of rare minerals are fumarole minerals, and at least 240 such minerals are known from Tolbachik volcano in Kamchatka, Russia. Other volcanoes where particular fumarole minerals have been discovered are Vulcano in Italy and Bezymyanny also in Russia.

Origin and appearance

Файл:Color SEM 4.jpg

Fumarole minerals in SEM images, from Mutnovsky volcano in Kamchatka. An electron micrograph, colour enhanced by optical microscopy, depicted width: 700 microns.

In fumaroles, minerals either form through desublimation from fumarole gases or through interactions of fumarole gases with country rock.Шаблон:Sfn The former are known as sublimates and the latter as incrustations.Шаблон:Sfn Some such deposits may also form through the interaction between liquid fumarole condensates and country rockШаблон:Sfn and are not always formed by desublimation.Шаблон:Sfn Repeated cycles of primary deposition and secondary alteration may occur.Шаблон:Sfn Volcanic gases such as hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, sulfur dioxide and waterШаблон:Sfn can transport large amounts of elements, thus contributing to geochemical cycles on the surface and the formation of ore deposits at depth.Шаблон:Sfn When these exhalations reach the atmosphere and cool, the minerals contained in them tend to precipitate out.

Volcanic fumarole minerals (as volcanic sublimate or fumarolic sublimate) form following deposition from volcanic gas during an eruption or discharge from a volcanic vent or fumarole. Burning coal produces enough heat to partially melt rocks and to generate exhalations of the mineral components embedded in coal.Шаблон:Sfn Coal seam fires often deposit fumarolic minerals over areas of a few square metres which can be detected by airborne hyperspectral imagery. Coal fires can mobilize toxic trace elements.Шаблон:Sfn Fumarole minerals have also been found in Gusev crater on Mars.

Fumarole deposits have been used to identify heat flow anomalies and to reconstruct ore genesis processes.Шаблон:Sfn

Fumarole exhalations are often black or multicoloured, and tend to develop typical zonations. Common components are sulfur compounds and elemental sulfur. In the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes in Alaska the fumarole minerals form both thin crusts in the vents, mixtures with tephra depositsШаблон:Sfn and coloured outcrops and mounds at the sites of former fumaroles.Шаблон:Sfn Deposits at Tolbachik volcano have shapes likef crusts, small plates and globules.

Typical components of fumarole minerals are halides, oxides, sulfates and sulfides,Шаблон:Sfn with the exact composition different between volcanoes, individual vents at volcanoes and different temperatures of the same vent.Шаблон:Sfn Fumarolic minerals are often unstable and are eroded or decompose, in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes in Alaska it took less than a century for almost all fumarole mineral deposits to disappear although others remained and were later used to identify former fumarole vents.Шаблон:Sfn Thus, many fumarole minerals are rare and many rare minerals are fumarole minerals. Some fumarolic minerals have been found in extinct Cenozoic volcanoesШаблон:Sfn and could exist in Archean rocks as well, however.Шаблон:Sfn Unique textures occur such as bubble-like structures, which may form when the liquid that deposits the minerals evaporates.Шаблон:Sfn

Volcanoes

Файл:Color SEM 2.jpg

Electron micrograph images of fumarolic minerals at Mutnovsky volcano, Kamchatka

Research on the mineralogy of fumarole minerals has been conducted in Central America, Russia and Europe,Шаблон:Sfn with detailed publications on Izalco in El Salvador, Eldfell in Iceland, VesuviusШаблон:Sfn where research goes back to the early 19th century and Vulcano in Italy, Mount Usu in Japan, Kudryavy and Tolbachik in Russia, Kilauea and Mount St. Helens in the United States.Шаблон:Sfn Sulfur deposits containing fumarolic desublimates are found at Guallatiri and Lastarria volcanoes in the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes. Kudryavy volcano in the Kurils is particularly known for the numerous mineralizations its fumaroles have producedШаблон:Sfn and for the presence of rhenium-rich precipitates.Шаблон:Sfn Among the elements found there are copper-gold-silver alloys.Шаблон:Sfn Various sulfate-based minerals have been identified at the Salton Buttes in California. Fumarolic minerals have also been reported from the Western Andes in Bolivia.

The most fumarolic minerals have been found at Tolbachik volcano in Kamchatka, Russia; Tolbachik also has one of the most diverse mineral assemblages in the world.Шаблон:Sfn The high temperature and oxidizing regime of exhalations which transport the elements at Tolbachik facilitates mineral deposition.Шаблон:Sfn A large assemblage of silicatesШаблон:Sfn and a number of copper-zinc selenite chlorides and copper-based fumarolic minerals were discovered at Tolbachik volcano, Kamchatka, Russia. Many of these include polymeric Шаблон:Chem units.Шаблон:Sfn About 240 minerals have been identified at Tolbachik,Шаблон:Sfn close to a record, 40 of them only incompletely studied.Шаблон:Sfn Elemental gold linked to chlorides at Tolbachik has been interpreted as gold transported by chlorine-rich oxidizing environments. Specimens of fumarole minerals from Tolbachik and Kudryavy are hosted by the Fersman Mineralogical Museum in Moscow.

Historical lava flows of Vesuvius volcano contain fumarolic minerals. Various fumarole minerals have been discovered at Vulcano volcano in Italy, where the mineralogy has changed since 1987 and 1990 due to hotter fumarole exhalations,Шаблон:Sfn yielding increased sulfate and sulfur salt concentrations.Шаблон:Sfn Fumarolic minerals have also been encountered in multiple mud volcanoes in Siberia.

Minerals discovered in fumarole areas

Mineral	Formula	Location	Date described	Ref
Abramovite	Шаблон:Chem	Kudryavy, Russia	2008
Allochalcoselite	Шаблон:Chem
Aluminocoquimbite	Шаблон:Chem	Grotta del' Alume, Vulcano, Italy	2010
Aluminopyracmonite	Шаблон:Chem	La Fossa, Vulcano, Italy	2018
Arsmirandite	Шаблон:Chem	Arsenatnaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia	2020	Шаблон:Sfn
Axelite	Шаблон:Chem	Arsenatnaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia	2022
Baliczunicite	Шаблон:Chem	La Fossa, Vulcano, Italy	2013	Шаблон:Sfn
Belomarinaite	Шаблон:Chem	Toludskoe lava field, Tolbachik, Russia	2019
Belousovite	Шаблон:Chem	Yadovitaya fumarole, Second Scoria Cone, Tolbachik, Russia	2018
Blossite	Шаблон:Chem	Izalco, El Salvador	1987
Bubnovaite	Шаблон:Chem	Naboko cone, Tolbachik, Russia
Cadmoindite	Шаблон:Chem	Kudryavy, Russia	2004	Шаблон:Sfn
Calciolangbeinite	Шаблон:Chem	Arsenatnaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia	2022
Campostriniite	Шаблон:Chem	La Fossa, Vulcano, Italy	2015
Cannizzarite	Шаблон:Chem	La Fossa, Vulcano, Italy
Cesiodymite	Шаблон:Chem	Second Scoria Cone, Tolbachik, Russia	2018
Chubarovite	Шаблон:Chem	Arsenatnaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia	2015
Cryptocalcite	Шаблон:Chem	Second Scoria Cone, Tolbachik, Russia	2018
Cuprodobrovolskyite	Шаблон:Chem	Second Scoria Cone, Tolbachik	2023
Cupromolybdite	Шаблон:Chem	New Tolbachik scoria cones, Tolbachik, Russia	2012
D'ansite	Шаблон:Chem	Vesuvius and Vulcano, Italy	2012
Demartinite	Шаблон:Chem	La Fossa, Vulcano, Italy	2007
Demicheleite	Шаблон:Chem and Шаблон:Chem	La Fossa, Vulcano, Italy	2010 and 2008
Dobrovolskyite	Шаблон:Chem	Great Tolbachik fissure eruption, Kamchatka peninsula, Russia	2021
Elasmochloite	Шаблон:Chem
Eldfellite	Шаблон:Chem
Ermakovite	Шаблон:Chem	Fan-Yagnob coal deposit, Tajikistan	2022
Grigorievite	Шаблон:Chem	Second Scoria Cone, Tolbachik, Russia	2015	Шаблон:Sfn
Hermannjahnite	Шаблон:Chem	Naboko scoria cone, Tolbachik, Russia	2018
Karpovite	Шаблон:Chem	First Cinder Cone, Tolbachik, Russia	2018
Knasibfite	Шаблон:Chem	La Fossa, Vulcano, Italy	2008
Koksharovite	Шаблон:Chem	Bezymyanny, Russia	2015	Шаблон:Sfn
Kudriavite	Шаблон:Chem	Kudryavy, Russia	2004	Шаблон:Sfn
Lehmannite	Шаблон:Chem	Arsenatnaya fumarole, Tolbachik	2020	Шаблон:Sfn
Leonardsenite	Шаблон:Chem	Eldfell, Heimaey, Iceland	2015	Шаблон:Sfn
Lesyukite	Шаблон:Chem	First Cone, Tolbachik, Russia	2007 or earlier	Шаблон:Sfn
Lucabindiite	Шаблон:Chem	La Fossa, Vulcano, Italy	2010–2011
Majzlanite	Шаблон:Chem	Yadovitaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia	2019
Medvedevite	Шаблон:Chem	Toludskoe lava field, Tolbachik, Russia	2020
Napoliite	Шаблон:Chem	Vesuvius, 1994 rocks	2010-2020
Nishanbaevite	Шаблон:Chem	Arsenatnaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia	2022
Oskarssonite	Шаблон:Chem	Eldfell, Iceland	2018
Ozerovaite	Шаблон:Chem	Second Cinder Cone, Tolbachik, Russia	2019
Paradimorphite	Шаблон:Chem	Solfatara, Campi Flegrei, Italy	2022
Parageorgbokiite	Шаблон:Chem	Yadovitaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia	2007
Parascandolaite	Шаблон:Chem	Vesuvius, Italy	2014
Parawulffite	Шаблон:Chem	Arsenatnaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia	2014
Petrovite	Шаблон:Chem	Second Scoria Cone, Tolbachik, Russia	2020
Pliniusite	Шаблон:Chem	Tolbachik, Russia	2022
Prewittite	Шаблон:Chem	Second Scoria Cone, Tolbachik, Russia	2013
Pseudolyonsite	Шаблон:Chem	New Tolbachik scoria cones, Tolbachik, Russia	2011
Puninite	Шаблон:Chem	Second scoria cone, Tolbachik, Russia	2017
Rhabdoborite	Шаблон:Chem	Arsenatnaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia	2020
Russoite	Шаблон:Chem	Solfatara, Phlegrean Fields, Italy	2018
Ryabchikovite	Шаблон:Chem	Arsenatnaya, Tolbachik	2023
Sbacchiite	Шаблон:Chem	Vesuvius, Italy	2019
Shcherbinaite	Шаблон:Chem	Izalco, El Salvador	1983
Stoiberite	Шаблон:Chem	"Y fumarole", Izalco, El Salvador	1979
Therasiaite	Шаблон:Chem	La Fossa, Vulcano, Italy	2014
Thermessaite	Шаблон:Chem	La Fossa, Vulcano, Italy	2021
Topsøeite	Шаблон:Chem	Hekla, Iceland	2018
Wulffite	Шаблон:Chem	Arsenatnaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia	2014
Vasilseverginite	Шаблон:Chem	Arsenatnaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia	2021
Wrightite	Шаблон:Chem	Second Scoria Cone, Tolbachik, Russia	1983
Yavapaiite	Шаблон:Chem
Ziminaite	Шаблон:Chem	Bezymyanny, Russia	2018
Zincobradaczekite	Шаблон:Chem	Yadovitaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia	2020

Gallery

• Scanning electron microscope images of fumarole minerals
• Fumarole minerals in natural colours

  Fumarole minerals in natural colours

• Fumarole minerals in natural colours, Mutnovsky, Kamchatka

  Fumarole minerals in natural colours, Mutnovsky, Kamchatka

• Fumarole minerals in natural colours, Tolbachik, Kamchatka

  Fumarole minerals in natural colours, Tolbachik, Kamchatka

• Photos of fumarole minerals
• Non-SEM photo of belomarinaite from Tolbachik, Kamchatka

  Non-SEM photo of belomarinaite from Tolbachik, Kamchatka

References

Sources

• Шаблон:Cite journal
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• Шаблон:Cite journal
• Шаблон:Cite journal
• Шаблон:Cite journal