Английская Википедия:Garum
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Redirect
Garum is a fermented fish sauce that was used as a condiment[1] in the cuisines of Phoenicia,[2] ancient Greece, Rome,[3] Carthage and later Byzantium. Liquamen is a similar preparation, and at times they were synonymous. Although garum enjoyed its greatest popularity in the Western Mediterranean and the Roman world, it was earlier used by the Greeks.[4][5]
Like modern fermented fish sauce and soy sauce, garum was a rich source of umami flavoring due to the presence of glutamates.[6] It was used along with murri in medieval Byzantine and Arab cuisine to give a savory flavor to dishes.[7] Murri may derive from garum.[8]
Manufacture and export
Pliny the Elder and Isidore of Seville derive the Latin word Шаблон:Lang from the Greek Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Transl),[9] a food named by Aristophanes, Sophocles, and Aeschylus. Garos may have been a type of fish, or a fish sauce similar to garum.[10] Pliny stated that garum was made from fish intestines, with salt, creating a liquor, the garum, and the fish paste named (h)allec or allex (similar to Шаблон:Lang, this paste was a byproduct of fish sauce production).[11][10] A concentrated garum evaporated down to a thick paste with salt crystals was called muria;[12] it would have been used to salt and flavor foods.[13]
The 10th century Byzantine manual Geōponika: Agricultural pursuits includes the following recipe for liquamen:[14] Шаблон:Quote
Garum was produced in various grades and consumed by all social classes. After the liquid was ladled off the top of the mixture, the remains of the fish, called Шаблон:Lang, were used by the poorest classes to flavour their staple porridge or farinata. The finished product—the Шаблон:Lang of Martial's epigram[15]—was apparently mild and subtle in flavor. The best garum fetched extraordinarily high prices,[16]Шаблон:Better source and salt could be substituted for it in a simpler dish. Garum appears in many recipes featured in the Roman cookbook Шаблон:Lang. For example, Apicius (8.6.2–3) gives a recipe for lamb stew, calling for the meat to be cooked with onion and coriander, pepper, lovage, cumin, Шаблон:Lang, oil, and wine, then thickened with flour.[17] The same cookbook mentions garum being used as fish stock to flavor chopped mallow leaves fried in a skillet.[18]
In the first century AD, liquamen was a sauce distinct from garum, as indicated throughout the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum IV. By the fifth century or earlier, however, liquamen had come to refer to garum.[19] The available evidence suggests that the sauce was typically made by crushing the innards of (fatty) pelagic fishes, particularly anchovies, but also sprats, sardines, mackerel, or tuna, and then fermenting them in brine.[20][21][22][23] In most surviving tituli picti inscribed on amphorae, where the fish ingredient is shown, the fish is mackerel.[19] Under the best conditions, the fermentation process took about 48 hours.[24]
The manufacture and export of garum was an element of the prosperity of coastal Greek emporia from the Ligurian coast of Gaul to the coast of Hispania Baetica, and perhaps an impetus for Roman penetration of these coastal regions.[25] Although garum was a staple of the Roman Empire's cuisine, few production sites are known to have existed in the Eastern Mediterranean. In 2019 a small 1st-century factory was discovered near Ashkelon.[26] A 2013 storm uncovered Neapolis, a major center of garum production, at Nabeul in Tunisia.[27]
Pliny the Elder spoke of a type of garum that Roman Jews may have used, as normal garum may not have contained exclusively kosher seafood.[28] In the ruins of Pompeii, jars were found containing kosher garum,[29] suggesting an equal popularity among Jews there.
Each port had its own traditional recipe, but by the time of Augustus, Romans considered the best to be garum from Cartagena and Gades in Baetica. This product was called garum sociorum, "garum of the allies".[25] The ruins of a garum factory remain at the Baetian site of Baelo Claudia (in present-day Tarifa) and Carteia (San Roque). Other sites are a large garum factory at Gades (Cadiz)[30] and at Málaga under the Picasso museum.
Garum was a major export product from Hispania to Rome, and gained the towns a certain amount of prestige. The garum of Lusitania (in present-day Portugal) was also highly prized in Rome, and was shipped directly from the harbour of Lacobriga (Lagos). A former Roman garum factory can be visited in the Baixa area of central Lisbon.[31] Fossae Marianae in southern Gaul, located on the southern tip of present-day France, served as a distribution hub for Western Europe, including Gaul, Germania, and Roman Britain.[32] Garum factories were also located in the province of Mauretania Tingitana (modern Morocco), for example at Cotta and Lixus.[33]
Umbricius Scaurus' production of garum was key to the economy of Pompeii. The factories where garum was produced in Pompeii have not been uncovered, perhaps indicating that they lay outside the walls of the city. The production of garum created such unpleasant smells that factories were generally relegated to the outskirts of cities. In 2008, archaeologists used the residue from garum found in containers in Pompeii to confirm the August date of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. The garum had been made entirely of bogues, fish that congregate in the summer months.[34]
Cuisine
When mixed with oenogarum (a popular wine-based Byzantine sauce), vinegar, black pepper, or oil, garum enhanced the flavor of a wide variety of dishes, including boiled veal and steamed mussels, even pear-and-honey soufflé. Diluted with water (hydrogarum) it was distributed to Roman legions. Pliny (d. 79) remarked in his Natural History that it could be diluted to the colour of honey wine and drunk.[36]
Social aspects
Garum had a social dimension that might be compared to that of garlic in some modern Western societies, or to the adoption of fish sauce in Vietnamese cuisine (called nước mắm there).[19] Seneca, holding the old-fashioned line against the expensive craze, cautioned against it, even though his family was from Baetian Corduba:
A surviving fragment of Plato Comicus speaks of "putrid garum". Martial congratulates a friend on keeping up amorous advances to a girl who had indulged in six helpings of it.[19]
The biological anthropologist Piers Mitchell suggests that garum may have helped spread fish tapeworms across Europe.[37]
As medicine
Garum was also employed as a medicine. It was thought to be one of the best cures for many ailments, including dog bites, dysentery, and ulcers, and to ease chronic diarrhea and treat constipation. Garum was even used as an ingredient in cosmetics and for removal of unwanted hair and freckles.[38]
Legacy
Garum remains of interest to food historians and chefs, and has been reintroduced into modern food preparation. In Southeast Asia, fish sauce is a distinctive element of that region's cuisine, used much as garum was in Rome.[39] In Cádiz, Spain, in 2017, one chef used its flavors for a fish salad recipe, after Spanish archaeologists found evidence of garum in amphoras recovered in the ruins of Pompeii, dating to 79 AD.[40]
Garum is believed to be the ancestor of the fermented anchovy sauce colatura di alici, still produced in Campania, Italy,[39] as well as the fermented anchovy and sardine paste pissalat in the Nice region, France.[41]
Worcestershire sauce is a savory sauce based upon fermented anchovies and other ingredients. Ketchup, originally a savory fish sauce that contained neither sugar nor tomatoes, shared its basic ingredients, culinary functions and popularity with garum.[10]
See also
References
External links
- Garum, in James Grout's Encyclopædia Romana
Шаблон:Fish sauce Шаблон:Seafood Шаблон:Ancient Rome topics
- ↑ (R. Zahn), Real-Encyclopaedia der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, s.v. "Garum", 1st Series 7 (1912) pp. 841–849.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Citation
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Origines 20.3.19; Шаблон:Cite journal, citing D'Arcy W. Thompson, A Glossary of Greek Fishes (London, 1947), p. 43.
- ↑ 10,0 10,1 10,2 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Geōponika: Agricultural pursuits, Vol. II, pp. 299–300; translated from the Greek by Thomas Owen; London 1806.
- ↑ Martial, Epigrams 13.
- ↑ Toussaint-Samat, The History of Food, revised ed. 2009, p. 338f.
- ↑ The Roman Cookery Book, trans. Flower and Rosenbaum, pp. 188–89.
- ↑ Apicius, De Re Coquinaria (Book III, section VIII)
- ↑ 19,0 19,1 19,2 19,3 Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Curtis RI (2009) "Umami and the foods of classical antiquity" American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 90 (3): 712S–718S. Шаблон:Doi
- ↑ Grainger S (2006) "Towards an Authentic Roman Sauce" In: Pages 206–210, Richard Hosking (Ed.) Authenticity in the Kitchen, Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery, 2005. Шаблон:ISBN.
- ↑ Jashemski WMF and Meyer FG (2002) The Natural History of Pompeii Cambridge University Press, page 274. Шаблон:ISBN.
- ↑ Zaret, PM (2004) Liquamen and other fish sauces" Repast, 20 (4) : 3–4 and 8.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ 25,0 25,1 Toussaint-Samat (2009).
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Millennium bcp Foundation, Rua dos Correeiros 21 Fundação Millennium bcp—Núcleo Arqueológico
- ↑ Curtis, Robert I. 1988. Spanish Trade in Salted Fish Products in the 1st and 2nd Centuries A.D. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology and Underwater Exploration. XXXIX. 205–210.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ G(ari) F(los) SCOM(bri) SCAURI EX OFFI(ci)NA SCAURI, from Pompeii
- ↑ Pliny, Historia Naturalis 13.93.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ 39,0 39,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
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