Английская Википедия:Gemara
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Distinguish Шаблон:None Шаблон:Rabbinical Literature
The Gemara (also transliterated Gemarah, or in Yiddish Gemore) is an essential component of the Talmud, comprising a collection of rabbinical analyses and commentaries on the Mishnah and presented in 63 books. The term is derived from the Aramaic word Шаблон:Script/Hebrew and rooted in the Semitic word ג-מ-ר (gamar), which means "to finish" or "complete". Initially, the Gemara was transmitted orally and not permitted to be written down. However, after Judah the Prince compiled the Mishnah around 200 CE, rabbis from Babylonia and the Land of Israel extensively studied the work.[1] Their discussions were eventually documented in a series of books, which would come to be known as the Gemara. The Gemara, when combined with the Mishnah, forms the full Talmud.
There are two versions of the Gemara: the Babylonian Talmud (Talmud Bavli) and the Jerusalem Talmud (Talmud Yerushalmi). The Babylonian Talmud, compiled by scholars in Babylonia around 500 CE and primarily from the academies of Sura, Pumbedita, and Nehardea, is the more commonly cited version when referring to the "Gemara" or "Talmud" without further qualification. The main compilers of the Babylonian Talmud were Ravina and Rav Ashi.
The Jerusalem Talmud, also known as the Palestinian Talmud, was compiled by Jewish scholars in the Land of Israel, primarily from the academies of Tiberias and Caesarea, around 350–400 CE.
The Talmud is organized into six sedarim, or "orders," which include Zeraim, Moed, Nashim, Nezikin, Kodshim, and Taharot.[1]
In 1923, Polish Rabbi Meir Shapiro introduced a contemporary practice called "Daf Yomi," or "daily page," wherein participants study one page of the Talmud daily in cycles lasting seven and a half years each. This initiative ensures that both scholars and laypeople across the globe engage in the comprehensive study of the entire Talmud.[2]
Gemara and Mishnah
The Gemara and the Mishnah together make up the Talmud. The Talmud thus comprises two components: the Mishnah – the core text; and the Gemara – analysis and commentary which "completes" the Talmud (see Structure of the Talmud). Maimonides describes the Gemara component as: Шаблон:Cquote
The rabbis of the Mishnah are known as Tannaim (sing. Tanna Шаблон:Script/Hebrew). The rabbis of the Gemara are referred to as Amoraim (sing. Amora אמורא). The analysis of the Amoraim, recorded as gemara, is thus focused on clarifying the positions, views, and word choice of the Tannaim.
Because there are two Gemaras, as mentioned above, there are in fact two Talmuds: the Jerusalem Talmud (Hebrew: Шаблон:Script/Hebrew, "Talmud Yerushalmi"), and the Babylonian Talmud (Hebrew: Шаблон:Script/Hebrew, "Talmud Bavli"), corresponding to the Jerusalem Gemara and the Babylonian Gemara; both share the same Mishnah. The Gemara is mostly written in Aramaic, the Jerusalem Gemara in Western Aramaic and the Babylonian in Eastern Aramaic, but both contain portions in Hebrew. Sometimes the language changes in the middle of a story.
Origins of the word
In a narrow sense, the word Шаблон:Transl refers to the mastery and transmission of existing tradition, as opposed to Шаблон:Transl, which means the deriving of new results by logic.[3] Both activities are represented in the Шаблон:Transl as one literary work.
The Sugya
The analysis of the Amoraim is generally focused on clarifying the positions, words and views of the Tannaim. These debates and exchanges form the "building-blocks" of the Шаблон:Transl; the name for such a passage of Gemara is a Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Script/Hebrew; plural Шаблон:Transl). A Шаблон:Transl will typically comprise a detailed proof-based elaboration of the Шаблон:Transl. Every aspect of the Шаблон:Transl text is treated as a subject of close investigation. This analysis is aimed at an exhaustive understanding of the Шаблон:Transl full meaning.
In the Talmud, a Шаблон:Transl is presented as a series of responsive hypotheses and questions – with the Talmudic text as a record of each step in the process of reasoning and derivation. The Шаблон:Transl thus takes the form of a dialectical exchange (by contrast, the Шаблон:Transl states concluded legal opinions – and often differences in opinion between the Tannaim. There is little dialogue). The disputants here are termed the Шаблон:Transl (questioner, "one who raises a difficulty") and Шаблон:Transl (answerer, "one who puts straight").
The Шаблон:Transl records the semantic disagreements between Tannaim and Amoraim. Some of these debates were actually conducted by the Amoraim, though many of them are hypothetically reconstructed by the Talmud's redactors. (Often imputing a view to an earlier authority as to how he may have answered a question: "This is what Rabbi X could have argued ...") Only rarely are debates formally closed.
Argumentation and debate
The distinctive character of the Шаблон:Transl derives largely from the intricate use of argumentation and debate, described above; these "back and forth" analytics are characterized by the Talmudic phrase shakla v'tarya (שקלא וטריא; lit. "taking and throwing"). In each Шаблон:Transl, either participant may cite scriptural, Шаблон:Transl and Шаблон:Transl proof to build a logical support for their respective opinions. The process of deduction required to derive a conclusion from a prooftext is often logically complex and indirect. "Confronted with a statement on any subject, the Talmudic student will proceed to raise a series of questions before he satisfies himself of having understood its full meaning."[4] This analysis has been described as "mathematical" in approach; Adin Steinsaltz makes the analogy of the Amoraim as scientists investigating the Halakha, where the Tanakh, Mishnah, Tosefta and midrash are the phenomena studied.
Prooftexts
Prooftexts quoted to corroborate or disprove the respective opinions and theories will include:
- verses from the Tanakh: the exact language employed is regarded as significant;
- other Шаблон:Transl: cross-references to analogous cases, or to parallel reasoning by the Шаблон:Transl in question;
- Beraitot (ברייתות) – uncodified Шаблон:Transl which are also sources of halakha (lit. outside material; sing. Шаблон:Transl ברייתא);
- references to opinions and cases in the Шаблон:Transl (תוספתא);
- references to the Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Transl);
- cross-references to other Шаблон:Transl: again to analogous cases or logic.
Questions addressed
The actual debate will usually centre on the following categories:
Language
Why does the Шаблон:Transl use one word rather than another? If a statement is not clear enough, the Шаблон:Transl seeks to clarify the Шаблон:Transl intention.
Logic
Exploring the logical principles underlying the Шаблон:Transl statements, and showing how different understandings of the Шаблон:Transl reasons could lead to differences in their practical application. What underlying principle is entailed in a statement of fact or in a specific instance brought as an illustration? If a statement appears obvious, the Шаблон:Transl seeks the logical reason for its necessity. It seeks to answer under which circumstances a statement is true, and what qualifications are permissible. All statements are examined for internal consistency. See: List of Talmudic principles and Category:Talmud concepts and terminology
Legal
Resolving contradictions, perceived or actual, between different statements in the Шаблон:Transl, or between the Шаблон:Transl and other traditions; e.g., by stating that: two conflicting sources are dealing with differing circumstances; or that they represent the views of different rabbis. Do certain authorities differ or not? If they do, why do they differ? If a principle is presented as a generalization, the Шаблон:Transl clarifies how much is included; if an exception, how much is excluded.
Biblical exposition
Demonstrating how the Шаблон:Transl rulings or disputes derive from interpretations of Biblical texts, the Шаблон:Transl will often ask where in the Torah the Шаблон:Transl derives a particular law. See Talmudic hermeneutics and Oral Torah #The interplay of the Oral and Written Law.
See also
- Шаблон:Transl
- Hadran (Talmud)
- List of masechtot, chapters, mishnahs and pages in the Talmud
- Oral Torah
- Шаблон:Transl
- Шаблон:Transl
- Шаблон:Slink
- Rabbinic works elaborating the analytical methods employed in Шаблон:Transl:
Further reading
- "Gemara", Jewish Encyclopedia
- "Gemara", Prof. Eliezer Segal
- "Maimonides introduction to the Mishneh Torah" English translation
- "Mevo ha-Talmud", Samuel ha-Nagid
- "Talmudic Method", Harry Austryn Wolfson
- The Essential Talmud: Thirtieth Anniversary Edition, Adin Steinsaltz (Basic Books, 2006). Шаблон:ISBN Read more here Шаблон:Webarchive. See also here Шаблон:Webarchive.
- The Talmud: A Reference Guide, Adin Steinsaltz (Random House, 1996). Шаблон:ISBN Read more here Шаблон:Webarchive.
- Introduction to The Talmud and Midrash, H.L. Strack and G. Stemberger (Fortress Press, 1992). Шаблон:ISBN
- The Infinite Chain: Torah, Masorah, and Man, Nathan T. Lopes Cardozo (Targum Press Distributed by Philipp Feldheim, 1989). Шаблон:ISBN
References
External links
- Point by point summary and discussion of the Gemara
- Gemara Marking System: Keys to Structure Шаблон:Webarchive
- Daf-A-Week: A project to study a daf per week
- The Complete Babylonian Talmud (Aramaic/Hebrew) as scanned images of the pages.
- The Complete Babylonian Talmud (Aramaic/Hebrew) as text. (Also available from other sites)
- A printable chart with listings of all Dappim from each Mesechta
- Gemara Brochos:"Shema, Tefillah and Brochos"
- Daily Gemara by Rabbi Eli Mansour
- Шаблон:Cite NIE
- Английская Википедия
- Страницы с неработающими файловыми ссылками
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