Английская Википедия:Gender Development Index

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Шаблон:Short description The Gender Development Index (GDI) is an index designed to measure gender equality.

GDI, together with the Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM), was introduced in 1995 in the Human Development Report written by the United Nations Development Program. These measurements aimed to add a gender-sensitive dimension to the Human Development Index (HDI). The first measurement that they created as a result was the GDI. The GDI is defined as a "distribution-sensitive measure that accounts for the human development impact of existing gender gaps in the three components of the HDI" (Klasen 243). Distribution sensitivity means that the GDI takes into account not only the averaged or general level of well-being and wealth within a given country, but focuses also on how this wealth and well-being is distributed between different groups within society. The HDI and the GDI (as well as the GEM) were created to rival the more traditional general income-based measures of development such as gross domestic product (GDP) and gross national product (GNP).[1]

Definition and calculation

The GDI is often considered a "gender-sensitive extension of the HDI" (Klasen 245). It addresses gender-gaps in life expectancy, education, and incomes. It uses an "inequality aversion" penalty, which creates a development score penalty for gender gaps in any of the categories of the Human Development Index (HDI) which include life expectancy, adult literacy, school enrollment, and logarithmic transformations of per-capita income. In terms of life expectancy, the GDI assumes that women will live an average of five years longer than men. Additionally, in terms of income, the GDI considers income-gaps in terms of actual earned income.[1] The GDI cannot be used independently from the HDI score, and so, it cannot be used on its own as an indicator of gender gaps. Only the gap between the HDI and the GDI can actually be accurately considered; the GDI on its own is not an independent measure of gender gaps.[2]

Gender Development Index (2018)

Below is a list of countries by their Gender Development Index, based on data collected in 2018, and published in 2019.[3] Countries are grouped into five groups based on the absolute deviation from gender parity in HDI values, from 1 (closest to gender parity) to 5 (furthest from gender parity). This means that grouping takes equally into consideration gender gaps favoring males, as well as those favoring females.

Файл:Countries by Gender Development Index (2019).png
World map showing countries in Group 1 to 5 of the Gender Development Index (based on 2018 data, published in 2019). Countries in Group 1 are closest to gender parity, while those in Group 5 are furthest (i.e. have the greatest gender disparity).
Шаблон:Legend Шаблон:Legend Шаблон:Legend Шаблон:Legend Шаблон:Legend Шаблон:Legend
2018
rank 		Country Gender Development Index Group Human Development Index
(women) 		Human Development Index
(men)
1 Шаблон:Flag 0.999271313598908 1 0.802241545091312 0.802826553883562
2 Шаблон:Flag 0.998616111258415 1 0.814121946939387 0.815250162460792
3 Шаблон:Flag 1.00211774602851 1 0.797989701033099 0.796303332812547
4 Шаблон:Flag 1.00257442927832 1 0.901787072451453 0.899471446823739
5 Шаблон:Flag 1.00272297523169 1 0.693389879484458 0.691506923259876
6 Шаблон:Flag 1.00324890931813 1 0.421654103634997 0.420288624008154
7 Шаблон:Flag 1.00339001174288 1 0.744042111285307 0.741528321567516
8 Шаблон:Flag 1.00369597615498 1 0.712223593546365 0.709600925446362
9 Шаблон:Flag 0.995480861692473 1 0.762715746885023 0.766178212194142
10 Шаблон:Flag 1.00461251995559 1 0.793862458409325 0.790217564125534
11 Шаблон:Flag 0.995122669191676 1 0.745224174704749 0.748876694076404
12 Шаблон:Flag 0.995109362655928 1 0.757109191363106 0.760830135636948
13 Шаблон:Flag 1.00705674095832 1 0.713558080174709 0.70855797012558
14 Шаблон:Flag 0.992621622836447 1 0.811903568014688 0.817938627706547
15 Шаблон:Flag 0.992371676979385 1 0.852080306845641 0.858630215484618
16 Шаблон:Flag 1.00854973881397 1 0.874194924380356 0.86678414632122
17 Шаблон:Flag 0.99144743381844 1 0.914844606387427 0.922736370262227
18 Шаблон:Flag 1.0094706476123 1 0.647427874518634 0.641353838321097
19 Шаблон:Flag 0.990437581014824 1 0.94564679665501 0.954776772187986
20 Шаблон:Flag 0.989817373600636 1 0.919751993696064 0.929213830982077
21 Шаблон:Flag 1.01032361432783 1 0.816388101546477 0.808046144788592
22 Шаблон:Flag 1.010339927488 1 0.819686875325532 0.811298111679611
23 Шаблон:Flag 0.989531869461814 1 0.723041706146159 0.730690671478228
24 Шаблон:Flag 0.989058149729888 1 0.915888363975847 0.926020744307072
25 Шаблон:Flag 0.98859213038971 1 0.832316431348996 0.841920955835336
26 Шаблон:Flag 0.98814794506132 1 0.929356109430028 0.940503002687878
27 Шаблон:Flag 0.987919014775328 1 0.817640023795134 0.827638714880978
28 Шаблон:Flag 1.01272311153934 1 0.728475070383083 0.719323043073244
29 Шаблон:Flag 0.986891147195856 1 0.836720430865344 0.847834569438376
30 Шаблон:Flag 1.01321583363332 1 0.654849103183038 0.646307609342023
31 Шаблон:Flag 0.986296673191879 1 0.754714364824177 0.765200152588724
32 Шаблон:Flag 0.986261546538915 1 0.809420161886165 0.820695245319724
33 Шаблон:Flag 0.986030910048998 1 0.718965693897112 0.729151273626285
34 Шаблон:Flag 1.01499805083001 1 0.828317933961805 0.816078349396287
35 Шаблон:Flag 0.98439750467821 1 0.883037148032378 0.897033102822659
36 Шаблон:Flag 1.01574985871536 1 0.885869263158098 0.872133287105225
37 Шаблон:Flag 0.984153359434317 1 0.698296318804934 0.709540146473014
38 Шаблон:Flag 0.984006569463407 1 0.842559344988258 0.856253780345916
39 Шаблон:Flag 1.01607193850868 1 0.809691228698831 0.79688376187934
40 Шаблон:Flag 0.983855072217788 1 0.836374771060734 0.850099567180554
41 Шаблон:Flag 0.98384439453558 1 0.644164225448235 0.654741978534431
42 Шаблон:Flag 0.983090727880394 1 0.864740933228215 0.879614575444782
43 Шаблон:Flag 0.983021479607738 1 0.881578351276749 0.896804769340881
44 Шаблон:Flag 0.982811514946144 1 0.712983445231243 0.725452881237674
45 Шаблон:Flag 0.981817713523961 1 0.927549412691099 0.944726704269694
46 Шаблон:Flag 0.98068365758681 1 0.881897607495364 0.899268179573288
47 Шаблон:Flag 0.980461996197969 1 0.920118047343707 0.938453556498605
48 Шаблон:Flag 0.979876022499264 1 0.747701339556282 0.763057083128946
49 Шаблон:Flag 0.978843828928938 1 0.774556381501532 0.791297200442139
50 Шаблон:Flag 0.977136852016496 1 0.781504112645575 0.799789825788274
51 Шаблон:Flag 0.976487130681848 1 0.901210670433948 0.92291095511383
52 Шаблон:Flag 0.976372480770375 1 0.789117394155053 0.808213473542829
53 Шаблон:Flag 0.975113503181452 1 0.925664958786577 0.949289447604262
54 Шаблон:Flag 0.974930720274505 2 0.928842297989999 0.9527264642235
55 Шаблон:Flag 0.974776845288729 2 0.734104181262105 0.753099732323518
56 Шаблон:Flag 1.02554956311433 2 0.522151801801454 0.50914341011059
57 Шаблон:Flag 0.973598560971563 2 0.781958849986583 0.803163522762666
58 Шаблон:Flag 0.973439493655793 2 0.655984723050024 0.673883407572098
59 Шаблон:Flag 0.972097105538784 2 0.745713315885668 0.767118132166803
60 Шаблон:Flag 1.02801557456846 2 0.880350319739633 0.856358932216745
61 Шаблон:Flag 0.971637285832976 2 0.904498199776896 0.93090108105668
62 Шаблон:Flag 0.971619589838185 2 0.710079630808469 0.730820619751736
63 Шаблон:Flag 0.971565636624078 2 0.89085212219952 0.916924280375936
64 Шаблон:Flag 0.971535181068249 2 0.791500865872141 0.814690894674394
65 Шаблон:Flag 0.971302380112087 2 0.778864159321813 0.801876094684266
66 Шаблон:Flag 0.970407383075693 2 0.611426703399936 0.630072188303048
67 Шаблон:Flag 0.970263947573514 2 0.893206480322808 0.920580922909261
68 Шаблон:Flag 1.03040141727652 2 0.86528356437401 0.839753856959034
69 Шаблон:Flag 1.03051247212425 2 0.745684609993285 0.723605613871095
70 Шаблон:Flag 0.969303900072772 2 0.65414310778579 0.67485863591045
71 Шаблон:Flag 0.968046731183915 2 0.922788125514936 0.953247499102003
72 Шаблон:Flag 0.968014313475195 2 0.710081665159304 0.733544592548527
73 Шаблон:Flag 0.967274986133354 2 0.865859235918938 0.895153134663575
74 Шаблон:Flag 0.96671693364499 2 0.903526469774669 0.934633953672392
75 Шаблон:Flag 0.966586563190941 2 0.915682504422063 0.94733626484437
76 Шаблон:Flag 0.966035360302579 2 0.921422694662473 0.953818806771077
77 Шаблон:Flag 0.965505839872185 2 0.800863981950797 0.829476062057601
78 Шаблон:Flag 0.965148016786254 2 0.831679159131191 0.861711514364929
79 Шаблон:Flag 0.964573668396 2 0.867003905508653 0.898846748481537
80 Шаблон:Flag 0.963450079812055 2 0.901877659315533 0.936091737613916
81 Шаблон:Flag 0.963384994370094 2 0.924302891740428 0.959432518818482
82 Шаблон:Flag 0.96331458591632 2 0.91883629861405 0.953827868951074
83 Шаблон:Flag 0.962992625875126 2 0.894949094941461 0.929341586731435
84 Шаблон:Flag 0.96272210220035 2 0.854140900297802 0.887214387563783
85 Шаблон:Flag 0.962280698092814 2 0.594969468404531 0.618290972253447
86 Шаблон:Flag 0.961896022109213 2 0.827637034592205 0.860422556668226
87 Шаблон:Flag 0.960737178700119 2 0.7411723134053 0.771462091649362
88 Шаблон:Flag 0.959354156976191 2 0.655758696158308 0.683541830084114
89 Шаблон:Flag 0.957251775460597 2 0.747167434728433 0.780533871947035
90 Шаблон:Flag 1.04338023447896 2 0.87328373892252 0.836975543588494
91 Шаблон:Flag 0.953281245175706 2 0.566167394183869 0.593914332259327
92 Шаблон:Flag 0.951068629111926 2 0.73835574021778 0.776343281249042
93 Шаблон:Flag 0.949346763894446 3 0.575199531528163 0.60588981118823
94 Шаблон:Flag 0.94847909440168 3 0.752740766990656 0.793629265456294
95 Шаблон:Flag 0.946858477421388 3 0.736774749145141 0.778125524261687
96 Шаблон:Flag 0.946436637249011 3 0.504225253132795 0.532761764800671
97 Шаблон:Flag 0.944301733548051 3 0.691914784976437 0.732726373779583
98 Шаблон:Flag 0.943001743676744 3 0.628457412659945 0.666443531917134
99 Шаблон:Flag 0.942983702163843 3 0.519691032216798 0.551113482687214
100 Шаблон:Flag 0.942644918586126 3 0.792879654368817 0.841122291899752
– World average 0.941430799701876 – 0.706980962068851 0.750964343096414
101 Шаблон:Flag 0.94043401604125 3 0.728006586417231 0.774117666948894
102 Шаблон:Flag 0.938974186367784 3 0.689217295551526 0.734010908454909
103 Шаблон:Flag 0.938530667537194 3 0.685437015702195 0.730329907599989
104 Шаблон:Flag 0.937501402709405 3 0.749425007262443 0.799385478354042
105 Шаблон:Flag 0.937278216882204 3 0.681319036769408 0.726912270548411
106 Шаблон:Flag 0.936580181665306 3 0.799753662146286 0.853908376242029
107 Шаблон:Flag 0.936071128421922 3 0.677681643411889 0.723963834408994
108 Шаблон:Flag 0.93556520183438 3 0.509116716427692 0.54418090308346
109 Шаблон:Flag 0.933514804909621 3 0.869859990274136 0.931811671008637
110 Шаблон:Flag 0.93334124890745 3 0.553446092043308 0.592972926773739
111 Шаблон:Flag 0.930834633256552 3 0.670350699455828 0.720160891640427
112 Шаблон:Flag 0.930508381323755 3 0.590608226344738 0.63471564383389
113 Шаблон:Flag 0.929979500928547 3 0.466256425669024 0.501362046371437
114 Шаблон:Flag 0.929388949637999 3 0.580896379268115 0.625030434775856
115 Шаблон:Flag 0.924865126473049 4 0.540217146902477 0.584103704896499
116 Шаблон:Flag 0.923845887665176 4 0.770530112179602 0.834046156904971
117 Шаблон:Flag 0.92376150833791 4 0.735305564655512 0.795990694587958
118 Шаблон:Flag 0.919132552991075 4 0.556669111249323 0.605646170879042
119 Шаблон:Flag 0.917044836281997 4 0.668897563298245 0.72940551741197
120 Шаблон:Flag 0.912066262295093 4 0.567120060412223 0.621796994206474
121 Шаблон:Flag 0.901852522177659 4 0.545524138209497 0.60489284533157
122 Шаблон:Flag 0.901399241057088 4 0.42171001631638 0.467839329243092
123 Шаблон:Flag 0.899721720272795 5 0.571432940029916 0.635121868411333
124 Шаблон:Flag 0.899338643290567 5 0.589475390655512 0.655454310846352
125 Шаблон:Flag 0.898619930984625 5 0.437938141035413 0.487345234548226
126 Шаблон:Flag 0.898516211947261 5 0.68930089658175 0.767154657218593
127 Шаблон:Flag 0.897374748629354 5 0.548886325033576 0.611657867431575
128 Шаблон:Flag 0.895463713494037 5 0.574538067712771 0.64160954715961
129 Шаблон:Flag 0.893345815434905 5 0.580503137357053 0.649807865361129
130 Шаблон:Flag 0.890577064263023 5 0.678454800871403 0.761814814344947
131 Шаблон:Flag 0.890365827551326 5 0.477397671690552 0.536181485090781
132 Шаблон:Flag 0.888069540927266 5 0.504017390629825 0.567542706288025
133 Шаблон:Flag 0.883486835760026 5 0.485715005319931 0.549770506656267
134 Шаблон:Flag 0.882483208929897 5 0.410599830153055 0.465277782056556
135 Шаблон:Flag 0.879136805709795 5 0.784333088515893 0.892162725325372
136 Шаблон:Flag 0.878316588012583 5 0.64266778257163 0.731704024884503
137 Шаблон:Flag 0.874690316250611 5 0.403149171515835 0.460905035789063
138 Шаблон:Flag 0.873999741121421 5 0.726849370286313 0.831635681440477
139 Шаблон:Flag 0.87347139391351 5 0.475960252557682 0.544906514253643
140 Шаблон:Flag 0.871346924588787 5 0.623519218495938 0.71558090227976
141 Шаблон:Flag 0.86892158600649 5 0.522007757584777 0.600753584663367
142 Шаблон:Flag 0.868301159101109 5 0.654288917853024 0.753527633811249
143 Шаблон:Flag 0.867675972564795 5 0.491676192340555 0.566658761896094
144 Шаблон:Flag 0.864588565403417 5 0.684971930096163 0.792251895879002
145 Шаблон:Flag 0.86268775649487 5 0.48376445336274 0.56076425070444
146 Шаблон:Flag 0.852934961025278 5 0.479113168207732 0.561722980181056
147 Шаблон:Flag 0.844045244422387 5 0.418857464866842 0.496250014599019
148 Шаблон:Flag 0.843899175273984 5 0.42770052294657 0.506814718485429
149 Шаблон:Flag 0.838915228792041 5 0.368735499184939 0.439538449809623
150 Шаблон:Flag 0.836500123073206 5 0.456500034277483 0.545726200972158
151 Шаблон:Flag 0.832807050749792 5 0.602993983556629 0.724050046182658
152 Шаблон:Flag 0.832110339375305 5 0.415697194375194 0.499569798264101
153 Шаблон:Flag 0.828659271423645 5 0.573650381208353 0.692263275136976
154 Шаблон:Flag 0.817890855118709 5 0.458991965749326 0.561189751513615
155 Шаблон:Flag 0.807099598839839 5 0.380140424771307 0.470995680480746
156 Шаблон:Flag 0.80606657004618 5 0.41342656240414 0.512893820147453
157 Шаблон:Flag 0.798555909314393 5 0.561341006774011 0.702945154154523
158 Шаблон:Flag 0.796251100904936 5 0.445376820642565 0.559342172508641
159 Шаблон:Flag 0.795444752528615 5 0.335149259100481 0.421335684263534
160 Шаблон:Flag 0.79532319946114 5 0.457372222910504 0.57507718022106
161 Шаблон:Flag 0.789324230426714 5 0.587352897134761 0.744121204561571
162 Шаблон:Flag 0.774452360811538 5 0.347398235861034 0.448572763723
163 Шаблон:Flag 0.746878273640409 5 0.464284284133844 0.621633136911112
164 Шаблон:Flag 0.722861973965333 5 0.410756365978411 0.568236234263597
165 Шаблон:Flag 0.457536126892644 5 0.244873082377673 0.5351994476168
166 Шаблон:Flag 0.298179843688684 5 0.129771161871938 0.435211046684383

Controversies

General debates

In the years since its creation in 1995, much debate has arisen surrounding the reliability, and usefulness of the Gender Development Index (GDI) in making adequate comparisons between different countries and in promoting gender-sensitive development. The GDI is particularly criticized for being often mistakenly interpreted as an independent measure of gender gaps when it is not, in fact, intended to be interpreted in that way, because it can only be used in combination with the scores from the Human Development Index, but not on its own. Additionally, the data that is needed in order to calculate the GDI is not always readily available in many countries, making the measure very hard to calculate uniformly and internationally. There is also worry that the combination of so many different developmental influences in one measurement could result in muddled results and that perhaps the GDI (and the GEM) actually hide more than they reveal.[1]

Criticism on Life Expectancy adjustment

More specifically, there has been a lot of criticism over the Life-Expectancy component of the GDI. As was mentioned previously, the GDI life expectancy section is adjusted by assuming that women will automatically live five years longer than men. This provision has been criticized on multiple grounds; e.g. it has been argued that if the GDI was really looking to promote true equality, it would strive to attain the same life-expectancy for women and men, despite what might be considered as "normalized" advantage. However paradoxical this may seem, in terms of policy implications this could be achieved through providing better treatment to males; which women rights organizations argue to be discriminatory against females. Yet, critics argue that UN provide a number of strategies and plans giving preferential treatment to women and girls, that is not seen as discriminatory towards men; not only for health issues but also for education or job opportunities.[4] Furthermore, it has been argued that the GDI does not account for sex-selective abortion, meaning that the penalty levied against a country for gender inequality is less because it affects less of the population (see Sen, Missing Women).[1]

Debates surrounding income gaps

Another area of debate surrounding the GDI is in the area of income gaps. The GDI considers income-gaps in terms of actual earned income. This has been said to be problematic because often, men may make more money than women, but their income is shared. Additionally, the GDI has been criticized because it does not consider the value of care work as well as other work performed in the informal sector (such as cleaning, cooking, housework, and childcare). Another criticism of the GDI is that it only takes gender into account as a factor for inequality; it does not, however, consider inequality among class, region or race, which could be very significant.[1] Another criticism with the income-gap portion of the GDI is that it is heavily dependent on gross domestic product (GDP) and gross national product (GNP). For most countries, the earned-income gap accounts for more than 90% of the gender penalty.

Suggested alternatives

As was suggested by Halis Akder in 1994, one alternative to the Gender Development Index (GDI) would be the calculation of a separate male and female Human Development Index (HDI). Another suggested alternative is the Gender Gap Measure which could be interpreted directly as a measure of gender inequality, instead of having to be compared to the HDI as the GDI is. It would average the female-male gaps in human development and use a gender-gap in labor force participation instead of earned income. In the 2010 Human Development Report, another alternative to the GDI, namely, the Gender Inequality Index (GII) was proposed in order to address some of the shortcomings of the GDI. This new experimental measure contains three dimensions: Reproductive Health, Empowerment, and Labor Market Participation.[2]

See also

Indices

Шаблон:Div col

Шаблон:Div col end

References

Шаблон:Reflist

External links

Шаблон:Deprivation Indicators

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  1. ↑ 1,0 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 Klasen S. UNDP's Gender-Related Measures: Some Conceptual Problems and Possible Solutions. Journal of Human Development [serial online]. July 2006;7(2):243-274. Available from: EconLit with Full Text, Ipswich, MA. Accessed September 26, 2011.
  2. ↑ 2,0 2,1 Klasen, Stephan1; Schuler, Dana. Reforming the Gender-Related Development Index and the Gender Empowerment Measure: Implementing Some Specific Proposals. Feminist Economics. January 2011 (1) 1 - 30
  3. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  4. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
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