Английская Википедия:Geordie
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:About Шаблон:Use dmy dates
Шаблон:Listen Шаблон:Listen Geordie (Шаблон:IPAc-en) is a nickname for a person from the Tyneside area of North East England[1] and the dialect used by its inhabitants, also known in linguistics as Tyneside English or Newcastle English. There are different definitions of what constitutes a Geordie. The term is used and has been historically used to refer to the people of the North East.[2][3][4][5][6] A Geordie can also specifically be a native of Tyneside (especially Newcastle upon Tyne) and the surrounding areas.[5][6][7] Not everyone from the North East of England identifies as a Geordie.[8][9]
Geordie is a continuation and development of the language spoken by Anglo-Saxon settlers, initially employed by the ancient Brythons to fight the Pictish invaders after the end of Roman rule in Britain in the 5th century.[5] The Angles, Saxons, and Jutes who arrived became ascendant politically and culturally over the native British through subsequent migration from tribal homelands along the North Sea coast of mainland Europe. The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms that emerged in the Dark Ages spoke largely mutually intelligible varieties of what is now called Old English, each varying somewhat in phonology, morphology, syntax, and lexicon. This linguistic conservatism means that poems by the Anglo-Saxon scholar the Venerable Bede can be translated more successfully into Geordie than into Standard English.[10] In Northern England and the Scottish borders, then dominated by the kingdom of Northumbria, there developed a distinct Northumbrian Old English dialect.
The British Library points out that the Norse, who primarily lived south of the River Tees, affected the language in Yorkshire but not in regions to the north. This source adds that "the border skirmishes that broke out sporadically during the Middle Ages meant the River Tweed established itself as a significant northern barrier against Scottish influence". Today, many who speak the Geordie dialect use words such as gan ('go' – modern German Шаблон:Lang) and bairn ('child' – modern Danish Шаблон:Lang), which "can still trace their roots right back to the Angles".[11]
The word "Geordie" can refer to a supporter of Newcastle United.[12] The Geordie Schooner glass was traditionally used to serve Newcastle Brown Ale.[13] The Geordie dialect and identity are primarily associated with those of a working-class background.[14] A 2008 newspaper survey found the Geordie accent the "most attractive in England".[15]
Geographical coverage
People
When referring to the people, as opposed to the dialect, dictionary definitions of a Geordie typically refer to a native or inhabitant of Newcastle upon Tyne, England, or its environs,[16] an area that encompasses North Tyneside, Newcastle, South Tyneside and Gateshead.[17][18] This area has a combined population of around 700,000, based on 2011 census-data.
The term itself, according to Brockett, originated from all the North East coal mines.[2] The catchment area for the term "Geordie" can include Northumberland and County Durham[3][4] or be confined to an area as small as the city of Newcastle upon Tyne and the metropolitan boroughs of Tyneside.[1]
Scott Dobson, the author of the book Larn Yersel Geordie, once stated that his grandmother, who was brought up in Byker, thought the miners were the true Geordies.[5] There is a theory the name comes from the Northumberland and Durham coal mines. Poems and songs written in this area in 1876 (according to the OED), speak of the "Geordie".[6]
Dialect
Academics refer to the Geordie dialect as "Tyneside English".[19][20][21][22]
According to the British Library, "Locals insist there are significant differences between Geordie and several other local dialects, such as Pitmatic and Mackem. Pitmatic is the dialect of the former mining areas in County Durham and around Ashington to the north of Newcastle upon Tyne, while Mackem is used locally to refer to the dialect of the city of Sunderland and the surrounding urban area of Wearside".[23]
Etymology
A number of rival theories explain how the term "Geordie" came about, though all accept that it derives from a familiar diminutive form of the name George,[24] "a very common name among the pitmen"[2][25] (coal miners) in North East England; indeed, it was once the most popular name for eldest sons in the region.Шаблон:Citation needed
One account traces the name to the times of the Jacobite Rebellion of 1715. The Jacobites declared that the natives of Newcastle were staunch supporters of the Hanoverian kings, whose first representative George I reigned (1714–1727) at the time of the 1715 rebellion. Newcastle contrasted with rural Northumberland, which largely supported the Jacobite cause. In this case, the term "Geordie" may have derived from the popular anti-Hanoverian song "Cam Ye O'er Frae France?",[26] which calls the first Hanoverian king "Geordie Whelps", a play on "George the Guelph".
Another explanation for the name states that local miners in the northeast of England used Geordie safety lamps, designed by George Stephenson, known locally as "Geordie the engine-wright",[27] in 1815[28] rather than the competing Davy lamps, designed about the same time by Humphry Davy and used in other mining communities. Using the chronological order of two John Trotter Brockett books, Geordie was given to North East pitmen; later he acknowledges that the pitmen also christened their Stephenson lamp Geordie.[2][25]
Linguist Katie Wales[29] also dates the term earlier than does the current Oxford English Dictionary; she observes that Geordy (or Geordie) was a common name given to coal-mine pitmen in ballads and songs of the region, noting that such usage turns up as early as 1793. It occurs in the titles of two songs by songwriter Joe Wilson: "Geordy, Haud the Bairn" and "Keep your Feet Still, Geordie". Citing such examples as the song "Geordy Black", written by Rowland Harrison of Gateshead, she contends that, as a consequence of popular culture, the miner and the keelman had become icons of the region in the 19th century, and "Geordie" was a label that "affectionately and proudly reflected this," replacing the earlier ballad emblem, the figure of Bob Crankie.
In the English Dialect Dictionary of 1900, Joseph Wright gave as his fourth definition of "Geordie": A man from Tyneside; a miner; a north-country collier vessel, quoting two sources from Northumberland, one from East Durham and one from Australia. The source from Durham stated: "In South Tyneside even, this name was applied to the Lower Tyneside men."[30]
Newcastle publisher Frank Graham's Geordie Dictionary states: Шаблон:Quote
In Graham's many years of research, the earliest record he found of the term's use dated to 1823 by local comedian Billy Purvis. Purvis had set up a booth at the Newcastle Races on the Town Moor. In an angry tirade against a rival showman, who had hired a young pitman called Tom Johnson to dress as a clown, Billy cried out to the clown: Шаблон:Quote
(Rough translation: "Oh man, who but a fool would have sold off his furniture and left his wife? Now, you're a fair downright fool, not an artificial fool like Billy Purvis! You're a real Geordie! Go on, man, and hide yourself! Go on and get your picks [axes] again. You may do for the city, but never for the west end of our town!")
John Camden Hotten wrote in 1869: "Geordie, general term in Northumberland and Durham for a pitman, or coal-miner. Origin not known; the term has been in use more than a century."[4] Using Hotten[4] as a chronological reference, Geordie has been documented for at least Шаблон:Age years as a term related to Northumberland and County Durham.
The name Bad-weather Geordy applied to cockle sellers: Шаблон:Quote
Travel writer Scott Dobson used the term "Geordieland" in a 1973 guidebook to refer collectively to Northumberland and Durham.[3]
Linguistic surveys
The Survey of English Dialects included Earsdon and Heddon-on-the-Wall in its fieldwork, administering more than 1000 questions to local informants.[31]
The Linguistic Survey of Scotland included Cumberland and Northumberland (using historic boundaries) in its scope, collecting words through postal questionnaires.[32] Tyneside sites included Cullercoats, Earsdon, Forest Hall, Gosforth, Newcastle upon Tyne, Wallsend-on-Tyne and Whitley Bay.[33]
Phonology
The phonemic notation used in this article is based on the set of symbols used by Шаблон:Harvcoltxt. Other scholars may use different transcriptions. Watt and Allen stated that there were approximately 800,000 people in the early 2000s who spoke this form of British English.[34][35]
Tyneside English (TE) is spoken in Newcastle upon Tyne, a city of around 260,000 inhabitants in the far north of England, and in the conurbation stretching east and south of Newcastle along the valley of the River Tyne as far as the North Sea. The total population of this conurbation, which also subsumes Gateshead, Jarrow, North and South Shields, Whitley Bay, and Tynemouth, exceeds 800,000.
Consonants
Geordie consonants generally follow those of Received Pronunciation, with these unique characteristics as follows:
- Шаблон:IPA appearing in an unstressed final syllable of a word (such as in reading) is pronounced as Шаблон:IPA (thus, reading is Шаблон:IPA).
- The Geordie accent does not use the glottal stop in a usual fashion. It is characterised by a unique type of glottal stops. Шаблон:IPA can all be pronounced simultaneously with a glottal stop after them in Geordie, both at the end of a syllable and sometimes before a weak vowel.Шаблон:Sfnp
- T-glottalisation, in which Шаблон:IPA is realised by Шаблон:IPA before a syllabic nasal (e.g., button as Шаблон:IPA), in absolute final position (get as Шаблон:IPA), and whenever the Шаблон:IPA is intervocalic so long as the latter vowel is not stressed (pity as Шаблон:IPA).
- Glottaling in Geordie is known as 'pre-glottalisation', which is 'an occlusion at the appropriate place of articulation and 'glottalisation', usually manifested as a short period of laryngealised voice before and/or after and often also during the stop gap'.Шаблон:Sfnp This type of glottal is unique to Tyneside English.[36]
- Other voiceless stops, Шаблон:IPA, are glottally reinforced in medial position, and preaspirated in final position.Шаблон:Sfnp
- The dialect is non-rhotic like most other dialects of England, with Шаблон:IPA being realised most commonly as an alveolar approximant Шаблон:IPAblink, although a labiodental realisation Шаблон:IPAblink is additionally growing in prevalence among younger females. (This variant is also possible, albeit rarer, in the speech of older males.) Traditionally, intrusive R was not present in Geordie, with speakers instead glottalising between boundaries; however, it is present in newer varieties of the dialect.Шаблон:Sfnp
- Yod-coalescence in both stressed and unstressed syllables (so that dew becomes Шаблон:IPA).
- Шаблон:IPA is traditionally clear in all contexts, meaning the velarised allophone is absent. However, modern accents may periodically use Шаблон:IPA in syllable final positions, sometimes it may even be vocalised (as in bottle Шаблон:IPA).Шаблон:Sfnp
Vowels
- Length
- For some speakers, vowel length alternates with vowel quality in a very similar way to the Scottish vowel length rule.Шаблон:Sfnp
- Vowel length is phonemic for many speakers of Geordie, meaning that length is often the one and only phonetic difference between Шаблон:Sc2 and Шаблон:Sc2 (Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA) or between Шаблон:Sc2 and Шаблон:Sc2 (Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA).Шаблон:Sfnp If older or traditional dialect forms are considered, Шаблон:Sc2 (Шаблон:IPA) also has a phonemic long counterpart Шаблон:IPA, which is mostly used in Шаблон:Sc2 words spelled with Шаблон:Angbr, making minimal pairs such as tack Шаблон:IPA vs. talk Шаблон:IPA (less broad Geordie pronunciation: Шаблон:IPA). Another Шаблон:IPAblink appears as an allophone of Шаблон:IPA before final voiced consonants in words such as lad Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp
- Phonetic quality and phonemic incidence
- Шаблон:Sc2 and Шаблон:Sc2, Шаблон:IPA, are typically somewhat closer than in other varieties in morphologically closed syllables; Шаблон:IPA is also less prone to fronting than in other varieties of BrE and its quality is rather close to the cardinal Шаблон:IPAblink. However, younger women tend to use a central Шаблон:IPAblink instead.Шаблон:Sfnp In morphologically open syllables, Шаблон:Sc2 and Шаблон:Sc2 are realised as closing diphthongs Шаблон:IPA. This creates minimal pairs such as freeze Шаблон:IPA vs. frees Шаблон:IPA and bruise Шаблон:IPA (hereafter transcribed with Шаблон:Angbr IPA for the sake of simplicity) vs. brews Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
- The Шаблон:Sc2 vowel is tense Шаблон:IPAblink and is best analysed as belonging to the Шаблон:IPA phoneme.Шаблон:Sfnp
- As other Northern English varieties, Geordie lacks the [[Foot–strut split|Шаблон:Sc2–Шаблон:Sc2 split]], so that words like cut, up and luck have the same Шаблон:IPA phoneme as put, sugar and butcher. The typical phonetic realisation is unrounded Шаблон:IPAblink, but it may be hypercorrected to Шаблон:IPAblink among middle-class (especially female) speakers.Шаблон:Sfnp
- The long close-mid vowels Шаблон:IPA, in Шаблон:Sc2 and Шаблон:Sc2, may be realised as monophthongs Шаблон:IPA in open syllables or as opening diphthongs Шаблон:IPA in closed syllables. Alternatively, Шаблон:IPA can be a closing diphthong Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA can be centralised to Шаблон:IPAblink.Шаблон:Sfnp The opening diphthongs are recessive, as younger speakers reject them in favour of the monophthongal Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp
- Other, now archaic, realisations of Шаблон:IPA include Шаблон:IPAblink in snow Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA in soldiers Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp
- Many female speakers merge Шаблон:Sc2 Шаблон:IPA with Шаблон:Sc2 Шаблон:IPA, but the exact phonetic quality of the merged vowel is uncertain.Шаблон:Sfnp
- Шаблон:Sc2, Шаблон:IPA, may be phonetically Шаблон:IPAblink or a higher, unrounded vowel Шаблон:IPAblink.Шаблон:Sfnp An RP-like vowel Шаблон:IPAblink is also possible.Шаблон:Sfnp
- In older broadest Geordie, Шаблон:Sc2 merges with Шаблон:Sc2 Шаблон:IPA to Шаблон:IPAblink under the influence of a uvular Шаблон:IPAblink that once followed it (when Geordie was still a rhotic dialect).Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp The fact that the original Шаблон:IPA vowel is never hypercorrected to Шаблон:IPAblink or Шаблон:IPAblink suggests that either this merger was never categorical, or that speakers are unusually successful in sorting those vowels out again.Шаблон:Sfnp
- The schwa Шаблон:IPA is often rather open (Шаблон:IPAblink). It also tends to be longer in duration than the preceding stressed vowel, even if that vowel is phonologically long. Therefore, words such as water and meter are pronounced Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp This feature is shared with the very conservative (Upper Crust) variety of Received Pronunciation.Шаблон:Sfnp
- Words such as voices and ended have Шаблон:IPA in the second syllable (so Шаблон:IPA), rather than the Шаблон:IPA of RP. That does not mean that Geordie has undergone the weak vowel merger because Шаблон:IPA can still be found in some unstressed syllables in place of the more usual Шаблон:IPA. An example of that is the second syllable of seven Шаблон:IPA, but it can also be pronounced with a simple schwa Шаблон:IPA instead. Certain weak forms also have Шаблон:IPA instead of Шаблон:IPA; these include at Шаблон:IPA (homophonous with strong it), of Шаблон:IPA (nearly homophonous with if), as Шаблон:IPA (homophonous with strong is), can Шаблон:IPA and us Шаблон:IPA (again, homophonous with strong is).Шаблон:Sfnp
- As in other Northern English dialects, the Шаблон:Sc2 vowel is short Шаблон:IPA in Geordie, thus there is no London-style trap–bath split. There are a small number of exceptions to this rule; for instance, half,Шаблон:Sfnp master, plaster and sometimes also disaster are pronounced with the Шаблон:Sc2 vowel Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp
- Some speakers unround Шаблон:Sc2, Шаблон:IPA, to Шаблон:IPAblink.Шаблон:Sfnp Regardless of the rounding, the difference in backness between Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA is very pronounced, a feature which Geordie shares with RP and some northern and midland cities such as Stoke-on-Trent and Derby, but not with the accents of the middle north.Шаблон:Sfnp
- Older traditional Geordie does not always adhere to the same distributional patterns of vowels found in standard varieties of English. Examples of that include the words no and stone, which may be pronounced Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, so with vowels that are best analysed as belonging to the Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA phonemes.Шаблон:Sfnp
| Endpoint | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Small | Шаблон:Small | Шаблон:Small | ||
| Start point | Шаблон:Small | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA |
| Шаблон:Small | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | ||
- Diphthongs
- The second elements of Шаблон:Sc2 and Шаблон:Sc2, Шаблон:IPA, are commonly as open as the typical Geordie realisation of Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:IPAblink).Шаблон:Sfnp
- The first element of Шаблон:Sc2, Шаблон:IPA, varies between Шаблон:IPAblink, Шаблон:IPAblink and Шаблон:IPAblink.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp Traditionally, this whole vowel was a high monophthong Шаблон:IPAblink (with town being pronounced close to RP toon) and this pronunciation can still be heard, as can a narrower diphthong Шаблон:IPA (with town being pronounced close to RP tone).Шаблон:Sfnp
- Шаблон:Sc2 is Шаблон:IPA, but Geordie speakers generally use a less common allophone for certain environments in accordance with the Scottish vowel length rule, Шаблон:IPA, which has a longer, lower, and more back onset than the main allophone. Thus Шаблон:IPA is used in words such as knife Шаблон:IPA, whereas Шаблон:IPA is used in knives Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp For simplicity, both of them are written with Шаблон:Angbr IPA in this article.
Vocabulary
The Geordie dialect shares similarities with other Northern English dialects, as well as with the Scots language (See Rowe 2007, 2009).
Dorfy, real name Dorothy Samuelson-Sandvid, was a noted Geordie dialect writer.[37][38] In her column for the South Shields Gazette, Samuelson-Sandvid attests many samples of Geordie language usage, such as the nouns bairn ("child")[39] and clarts ("mud");[40] the adjectives canny ("pleasant")[41] and clag ("sticky");[40] and the imperative verb phrase howay ("hurry up!"; "come on!")[42]
Howay is broadly comparable to the invocation "Come on!" or the French "Allez-y!" ("Go on!"). Examples of common use include Howay man!, meaning "come on" or "hurry up", Howay the lads! as a term of encouragement for a sports team for example (the players' tunnel at St James' Park has this phrase just above the entrance to the pitch), or Ho'way!? (with stress on the second syllable) expressing incredulity or disbelief.[43] The literal opposite of this phrase is haddaway ("go away"); although not as common as howay, it is perhaps most commonly used in the phrase "Haddaway an' shite" (Tom Hadaway, Figure 5.2 Haddaway an' shite; 'Cursing like sleet blackening the buds, raging at the monk of Jarrow scribbling his morality and judgement into a book.').[44]
Another word, divvie or divvy ("idiot"), seems to come from the Co-op dividend,[45] or from the two Davy lamps (the more explosive Scotch Davy[46] used in 1850, commission disapproved of its use in 1886 (inventor not known, nicknamed Scotch Davy probably given by miners after the Davy lamp was made perhaps by north east miners who used the Stephenson Lamp[28][47]), and the later better designed Davy designed by Humphry Davy also called the Divvy.[48]) As in a north east miner saying 'Marra, ye keep way from me if ye usin a divvy.' It seems the word divvie then translated to daft lad/lass. Perhaps coming from the fact one would be seen as foolish going down a mine with a Scotch Divvy when there are safer lamps available, like the Geordie, or the Davy.
The Geordie word netty,[49] meaning a toilet and place of need and necessity for relief[49][50][51] or bathroom,[49][50][51] has an uncertain origin,[52] though some have theorised that it may come from slang used by Roman soldiers on Hadrian's Wall,[53] which may have later become gabinetti in the Romance language Italian[53] (such as in the Westoe Netty, the subject of a famous painting from Bob Olley[53][54]). However, gabbinetto is the Modern Italian diminutive of gabbia, which actually derives from the Latin cavea ("hollow", "cavity", "enclosure"), the root of the loanwords that became the Modern English cave,[55] cage,[56] and gaol.[57] Thus, another explanation would be that it comes from a Modern Italian form of the word gabinetti,[52] though only a relatively small number of Italians have migrated to the North of England, mostly during the 19th century.[58]
Some etymologists connect the word netty to the Modern English word needy. John Trotter Brockett, writing in 1829 in his A glossary of north country words...,[51] claims that the etymon of netty (and its related form neddy) is the Modern English needy[59] and need.[60]
Bill Griffiths, in A Dictionary of North East Dialect, points to the earlier form, the Old English níd; he writes: "MS locates a possible early ex. "Robert Hovyngham sall make... at the other end of his house a knyttyng" York 1419, in which case the root could be OE níd 'necessary'".[50] Another related word, nessy is thought (by Griffiths) to derive from the Modern English "necessary".[50]
A poem called "Yam" narrated by author Douglas Kew demonstrates the usage of a number of Geordie words.[61][62]
References
Sources
- Шаблон:Citation
- Шаблон:Citation
- Шаблон:Citation
- Шаблон:Citation
- Шаблон:Citation
- Шаблон:Citation
- Шаблон:Citation
- Шаблон:Citation
- Шаблон:Citation
- Шаблон:Citation
- Шаблон:Accents of English
External links
- Newcastle English (Geordie)
- Sounds Familiar?– Listen to examples of Geordie and other regional accents and dialects of the UK on the British Library's 'Sounds Familiar' website
- 'Hover & Hear' Geordie pronunciations, and compare side by side with other accents from the UK and around the World.
- The Geordie Directory – Find out about & learn the Geordie accent
- Geordie dialect words on Wikibooks
Шаблон:English dialects by continent
- ↑ 1,0 1,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 2,0 2,1 2,2 2,3 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 3,0 3,1 3,2 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 4,0 4,1 4,2 4,3 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 5,0 5,1 5,2 5,3 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 6,0 6,1 6,2 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Geordie: A regional dialect of English
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite webШаблон:RsШаблон:Sps
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Geordie: A regional dialect of English
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 25,0 25,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Recorded by the folk group Steeleye Span on their album Parcel of Rogues, 1973.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 28,0 28,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Tyneside English
- ↑ Tyneside English, Dominic Watt and William Allen
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 40,0 40,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег
<ref>; для сносокDrfhrswrd4не указан текст - ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег
<ref>; для сносокDorphydialogне указан текст - ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 49,0 49,1 49,2 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 50,0 50,1 50,2 50,3 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 51,0 51,1 51,2 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 52,0 52,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 53,0 53,1 53,2 Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite video
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
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