Английская Википедия:Germanic umlaut
Шаблон:About Шаблон:See also Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:IPA notice The Germanic umlaut (sometimes called i-umlaut or i-mutation) is a type of linguistic umlaut in which a back vowel changes to the associated front vowel (fronting) or a front vowel becomes closer to Шаблон:IPAslink (raising) when the following syllable contains Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, or Шаблон:IPAslink.
It took place separately in various Germanic languages starting around AD 450 or 500 and affected all of the early languages[1] except Gothic.[2] An example of the resulting vowel alternation is the English plural foot ~ feet (from Proto-Germanic Шаблон:Lang, pl. Шаблон:Lang). Germanic umlaut, as covered in this article, does not include other historical vowel phenomena that operated in the history of the Germanic languages such as Germanic a-mutation and the various language-specific processes of u-mutation, nor the earlier Indo-European ablaut (vowel gradation), which is observable in the conjugation of Germanic strong verbs such as sing/sang/sung.
While Germanic umlaut has had important consequences for all modern Germanic languages, its effects are particularly apparent in German, because vowels resulting from umlaut are generally spelled with a specific set of letters: Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, and Шаблон:Angbr, usually pronounced /ɛ/ (formerly /æ/), /ø/, and /y/. Umlaut is a form of assimilation or vowel harmony, the process by which one speech sound is altered to make it more like another adjacent sound. If a word has two vowels with one far back in the mouth and the other far forward, more effort is required to pronounce the word than if the vowels were closer together; therefore, one possible linguistic development is for these two vowels to be drawn closer together.
Description
Germanic umlaut is a specific historical example of this process that took place in the unattested earliest stages of Old English and Old Norse and apparently later in Old High German, and some other old Germanic languages. The precise developments varied from one language to another, but the general trend was this:
- Whenever a back vowel (Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA, whether long or short) occurred in a syllable and the front vowel Шаблон:IPA or the front glide Шаблон:IPA occurred in the next, the vowel in the first syllable was fronted (usually to Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:IPA respectively). Thus, for example, West Germanic Шаблон:Lang "mice" shifted to proto-Old English Шаблон:Lang, which eventually developed to modern mice, while the singular form Шаблон:Lang lacked a following Шаблон:IPA and was unaffected, eventually becoming modern mouse.[3]
- When a low or mid-front vowel occurred in a syllable and the front vowel Шаблон:IPA or the front glide Шаблон:IPA occurred in the next, the vowel in the first syllable was raised. This happened less often in the Germanic languages, partly because of earlier vowel harmony in similar contexts. However, for example, proto-Old English Шаблон:IPA became Шаблон:IPA in, for example, Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA 'bed'.[4]
The fronted variant caused by umlaut was originally allophonic (a variant sound automatically predictable from context), but it later became phonemic when the context was lost but the variant sound remained. The following examples show how, when final Шаблон:Lang was lost, the variant sound Шаблон:Lang became a new phoneme in Old English:[5]
| Process | Language | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Original form[6] | Proto-Germanic | *mūs | *mūsiz | *fō(t)s | *fōtiz |
| Loss of final -z | West Germanic | *mūsi | *fōt | *fōti | |
| Germanic umlaut | Pre-Old English | *mȳsi | *fø̄ti | ||
| Loss of i after a heavy syllable | mūs | mȳs | fōt | fø̄t | |
| Unrounding of ø̄ (> ē) | Most Old English dialects | fēt | |||
| Unrounding of ȳ (> ī) | Early Middle English | mīs | |||
| Great Vowel Shift | Early Modern and Modern English | Шаблон:IPA ("mouse") | Шаблон:IPA ("mice") | Шаблон:IPA ("foot") | Шаблон:IPA ("feet") |
Outcomes in modern spelling and pronunciation
The following table surveys how Proto-Germanic vowels which later underwent i-umlaut generally appear in modern languages — though there are many exceptions to these patterns owing to other sound-changes and chance variations. The table gives two West Germanic examples (English and German) and two North Germanic examples (Swedish, from the east, and Icelandic, from the west). Spellings are marked by pointy brackets (⟨...⟩) and pronunciation, given in the international phonetic alphabet, in slashes (/.../).
| Proto-Germanic vowel | example word | usual modern reflex after i-umlaut | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| English | German | Swedish | Icelandic | ||
| ɑ | Шаблон:Lang ('people') | ⟨e⟩, /ɛ/ (men) | ⟨ä⟩, /ɛ/ (Шаблон:Lang) | ⟨ä⟩, /ɛ/ (Шаблон:Lang) | ⟨e⟩, /ɛ/ (Шаблон:Lang) |
| ɑː | Шаблон:Lang ('geese'), which became Шаблон:Lang in North Germanic and North Sea Germanic, though not in German | ⟨ea⟩, ⟨ee⟩, /i/ (geese) | ⟨ä⟩, /ɛ/ (Шаблон:Lang) | ⟨ä⟩, /ɛ/ (Шаблон:Lang) | ⟨æ⟩, /aɪ/ (Шаблон:Lang) |
| o | no single example in all languages[7] | ⟨e⟩, /ɛ/
(Шаблон:Lang > eaves) |
⟨ö⟩, /ø/ | ⟨ö⟩, /ø/ | ⟨e⟩, /ɛ/ |
| ɔː | Шаблон:Lang ('feet') | ⟨ea⟩, ⟨ee⟩, /i/ (feet) | ⟨ü⟩, /y/ (Шаблон:Lang) | ⟨ö⟩, /ø/ (Шаблон:Lang) | ⟨æ⟩, /aɪ/ (Шаблон:Lang) |
| u | Шаблон:Lang ('fill') | ⟨i⟩, /ɪ/ (fill) | ⟨ü⟩, /y/ (Шаблон:Lang) | ⟨y⟩, /y/ (Шаблон:Lang) | ⟨y⟩, /ɪ/ (Шаблон:Lang) |
| uː | Шаблон:Lang ('lice') | ⟨i⟩, /aɪ/ (lice) | ⟨eu, äu⟩, /ɔʏ̯/ (Шаблон:Lang) | ⟨ö⟩, /ø/ (Шаблон:Lang) | ⟨ý⟩, /i/ (Шаблон:Lang) |
| ɑu | Шаблон:Lang ('hear') | ⟨ea⟩, ⟨ee⟩, /i/ (hear) | ⟨ö⟩, /ø/ (Шаблон:Lang) | ⟨ö⟩, /ø/ (Шаблон:Lang) | ⟨ey⟩, /ɛɪ/ (Шаблон:Lang) |
| ɑi | Шаблон:Lang ('heal') | ⟨ea⟩, ⟨ee⟩, /i/ (heal) | ⟨ei⟩, /aɪ̯/ (Шаблон:Lang) | ⟨e⟩, /e/ (Шаблон:Lang) | ⟨ei⟩, /ɛɪ/ (Шаблон:Lang) |
| eu, iu | Шаблон:Lang ('steer') | ⟨ea⟩, ⟨ee⟩, /i/ (steer) | ⟨eu⟩, /ɔʏ̯/ (Шаблон:Lang) | ⟨y⟩, /y/ (Шаблон:Lang) | ⟨ý⟩, /i/ (Шаблон:Lang) |
Whereas modern English does not have any special letters for vowels produced by i-umlaut, in German the letters Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, and Шаблон:Angbr almost always represent umlauted vowels (see further below). Likewise, in Swedish Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, and Шаблон:Angbr and Icelandic Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, and Шаблон:Angbr are almost always used of vowels produced by i-umlaut. However, German Шаблон:Angbr represents vowels from multiple sources, which is also the case for Шаблон:Angbr in Swedish and Icelandic.
German orthography
German orthography is generally consistent in its representation of i-umlaut. The umlaut diacritic, consisting of two dots above the vowel, is used for the fronted vowels, making the historical process much more visible in the modern language than is the case in English: Шаблон:Angbr – Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr – Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr – Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr – Шаблон:Angbr. This is a neat solution when pairs of words with and without umlaut mutation are compared, as in umlauted plurals like Шаблон:Lang – Шаблон:Lang ("mother" – "mothers").
However, in a small number of words, a vowel affected by i-umlaut is not marked with the umlaut diacritic because its origin is not obvious. Either there is no unumlauted equivalent or they are not recognized as a pair because the meanings have drifted apart. The adjective Шаблон:Lang ("ready, finished"; originally "ready to go") contains an umlaut mutation, but it is spelled with Шаблон:Angbr rather than Шаблон:Angbr as its relationship to Шаблон:Lang ("journey") has, for most speakers of the language, been lost from sight. Likewise, Шаблон:Lang ("old") has the comparative Шаблон:Lang ("older"), but the noun from this is spelled Шаблон:Lang ("parents"). Шаблон:Lang ("effort") has the verb Шаблон:Lang ("to spend, to dedicate") and the adjective Шаблон:Lang ("requiring effort") though the 1996 spelling reform now permits the alternative spelling Шаблон:Lang (but not Шаблон:Lang).[8] For Шаблон:Lang, see below.
Some words have umlaut diacritics that do not mark a vowel produced by the sound change of umlaut. This includes loanwords such as Шаблон:Lang from English kangaroo, and Шаблон:Lang from French Шаблон:Lang. Here the diacritic is a purely phonological marker, indicating that the English and French sounds (or at least, the approximation of them used in German) are identical to the native German umlauted sounds. Similarly, Big Mac was originally spelt Шаблон:Lang in German.[9] In borrowings from Latin and Greek, Latin Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, or Greek Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:Lang, are rendered in German as Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang respectively (Шаблон:Lang, "Egypt", or Шаблон:Lang, "economy"). However, Latin Шаблон:Angbr and Greek Шаблон:Angbr are written Шаблон:Lang in German instead of Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang). There are also several non-borrowed words where the vowels ö and ü have not arisen through historical umlaut, but due to rounding of an earlier unrounded front vowel (possibly from the labial/labialized consonants Шаблон:Lang occurring on both sides), such as Шаблон:Lang ("five"; from Middle High German Шаблон:Lang), Шаблон:Lang ("twelve"; from Шаблон:Lang), and Шаблон:Lang ("create"; from Шаблон:Lang).
Substitution
When German words (names in particular) are written in the basic Latin alphabet, umlauts are usually substituted with Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr and Шаблон:Angbr to differentiate them from simple Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, and Шаблон:Angbr.[10]
Orthography and design history
The German phonological umlaut is present in the Old High German period and continues to develop in Middle High German. From the Middle High German, it was sometimes denoted in written German by adding an Шаблон:Angbr to the affected vowel, either after the vowel or, in the small form, above it. This can still be seen in some names: Goethe, Goebbels, Staedtler.[11]
In blackletter handwriting, as used in German manuscripts of the later Middle Ages and also in many printed texts of the early modern period, the superscript Шаблон:Angbr still had a form that would now be recognisable as an Шаблон:Angbr, but in manuscript writing, umlauted vowels could be indicated by two dots since the late medieval period.
Unusual umlaut designs are sometimes also created for graphic design purposes, such as to fit an umlaut into tightly-spaced lines of text.[12] It may include umlauts placed vertically or inside the body of the letter.[13][14][15]
Morphological effects
Although umlaut was not a grammatical process, umlauted vowels often serve to distinguish grammatical forms (and thus show similarities to ablaut when viewed synchronically), as can be seen in the English word man. In ancient Germanic, it and some other words had the plural suffix Шаблон:Lang, with the same vowel as the singular. As it contained an Шаблон:Lang, this suffix caused fronting of the vowel, and when the suffix later disappeared, the mutated vowel remained as the only plural marker: men. In English, such plurals are rare: man, woman, tooth, goose, foot, mouse, louse, brother (archaic or specialized plural in brethren), and cow (poetic and dialectal plural in kine). It also can be found in a few fossilized diminutive forms, such as kitten from cat and kernel from corn, and the feminine vixen from fox. Umlaut is conspicuous when it occurs in one of such a pair of forms, but there are many mutated words without an unmutated parallel form. Germanic actively derived causative weak verbs from ordinary strong verbs by applying a suffix, which later caused umlaut, to a past tense form. Some of these survived into modern English as doublets of verbs, including fell and set vs. fall and sit. Umlaut could occur in borrowings as well if stressed vowel was coloured by a subsequent front vowel, such as German Шаблон:Lang, "Cologne", from Latin Шаблон:Lang, or Шаблон:Lang, "cheese", from Latin Шаблон:Lang.
Parallel umlauts in some modern Germanic languages
Umlaut in Germanic verbs
Some interesting examples of umlaut involve vowel distinctions in Germanic verbs. Although these are often subsumed under the heading "ablaut" in tables of Germanic irregular verbs, they are a separate phenomenon.
Present stem Umlaut in strong verbs
A variety of umlaut occurs in the second and third person singular forms of the present tense of some Germanic strong verbs. For example, German Шаблон:Lang ("to catch") has the present tense Шаблон:Lang. The verb Шаблон:Lang ("give") has the present tense Шаблон:Lang, but the shift Шаблон:Lang→Шаблон:Lang would not be a normal result of umlaut in German. There are, in fact, two distinct phenomena at play here; the first is indeed umlaut as it is best known, but the second is older and occurred already in Proto-Germanic itself. In both cases, a following Шаблон:Lang triggered a vowel change, but in Proto-Germanic, it affected only Шаблон:Lang. The effect on back vowels did not occur until hundreds of years later, after the Germanic languages had already begun to split up: Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang with no umlaut of Шаблон:Lang, but Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang with umlaut of Шаблон:Lang.
Present stem Umlaut in weak verbs (Шаблон:Lang)
The German word Шаблон:Lang ("reverse umlaut"), sometimes known in English as "unmutation",[16] is a term given to the vowel distinction between present and preterite forms of certain Germanic weak verbs. These verbs exhibit the dental suffix used to form the preterite of weak verbs, and also exhibit what appears to be the vowel gradation characteristic of strong verbs. Examples in English are think/thought, bring/brought, tell/told, sell/sold. The phenomenon can also be observed in some German verbs including Шаблон:Lang ("burn/burnt"), Шаблон:Lang ("know/knew"), and a handful of others. In some dialects, particularly of western Germany, the phenomenon is preserved in many more forms (for example Luxembourgish Шаблон:Lang, "to put", and Limburgish Шаблон:Lang, "to tell, count"). The cause lies with the insertion of the semivowel Шаблон:IPA between the verb stem and inflectional ending.[17] This Шаблон:IPA triggers umlaut, as explained above. In short stem verbs, the Шаблон:IPA is present in both the present and preterite. In long stem verbs however, the Шаблон:IPA fell out of the preterite.[17] Thus, while short stem verbs exhibit umlaut in all tenses, long stem verbs only do so in the present. When the German philologist Jacob Grimm first attempted to explain the phenomenon, he assumed that the lack of umlaut in the preterite resulted from the reversal of umlaut.[17] In actuality, umlaut never occurred in the first place. Nevertheless, the term "Rückumlaut" makes some sense since the verb exhibits a shift from an umlauted vowel in the basic form (the infinitive) to a plain vowel in the respective inflections.
Umlaut as a subjunctive marker
In German, some verbs which display a back vowel in the past tense undergo umlaut in the subjunctive mood: Шаблон:Lang (ind.) → Шаблон:Lang (subj.) ("sing/sang"); Шаблон:Lang (ind.) → Шаблон:Lang (subj.) ("fence/fenced"). Again, this is due to the presence of a following Шаблон:Lang in the verb endings in the Old High German period.
Historical survey by language
West Germanic languages
Although umlauts operated the same way in all the West Germanic languages, the exact words in which it took place and the outcomes of the process differ between the languages. Of particular note is the loss of word-final Шаблон:Lang after heavy syllables. In the more southern languages (Old High German, Old Dutch, Old Saxon), forms that lost Шаблон:Lang often show no umlaut, but in the more northern languages (Old English, Old Frisian), the forms do. Compare Old English Шаблон:Lang "guest", which shows umlaut, and Old High German Шаблон:Lang, which does not, both from Proto-Germanic Шаблон:Lang. That may mean that there was dialectal variation in the timing and spread of the two changes, with final loss happening before umlaut in the south but after it in the north. On the other hand, umlaut may have still been partly allophonic, and the loss of the conditioning sound may have triggered an "un-umlauting" of the preceding vowel. Nevertheless, medial Шаблон:Lang consistently triggers umlaut although its subsequent loss is universal in West Germanic except for Old Saxon and early Old High German.
I-mutation in Old English
I-mutation generally affected Old English vowels as follows in each of the main dialects.[18] It led to the introduction into Old English of the new sounds Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA (which, in most varieties, soon turned into Шаблон:IPA), and a sound written in Early West Saxon manuscripts as Шаблон:Angbr but whose phonetic value is debated.
I-mutation is particularly visible in the inflectional and derivational morphology of Old English since it affected so many of the Old English vowels. Of 16 basic vowels and diphthongs in Old English, only the four vowels Шаблон:Lang were unaffected by i-mutation. Although i-mutation was originally triggered by an Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA in the syllable following the affected vowel, by the time of the surviving Old English texts, the Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA had generally changed (usually to Шаблон:IPA) or been lost entirely, with the result that i-mutation generally appears as a morphological process that affects a certain (seemingly arbitrary) set of forms. These are most common forms affected:
- The plural, and genitive/dative singular, forms of consonant-declension nouns (Proto-Germanic (PGmc) Шаблон:Lang), as compared to the nominative/accusative singular – e.g., Шаблон:Lang "foot", Шаблон:Lang "feet"; Шаблон:Lang "mouse", Шаблон:Lang "mice". Many more words were affected by this change in Old English vs. modern English – e.g., Шаблон:Lang "book", Шаблон:Lang "books"; Шаблон:Lang "friend", Шаблон:Lang "friends".
- The second and third person present singular indicative of strong verbs (Pre-Old-English (Pre-OE) Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang), as compared to the infinitive and other present-tense forms – e.g. Шаблон:Lang "to help", Шаблон:Lang "(I) help", Шаблон:Lang "(you sg.) help", Шаблон:Lang "(he/she) helps", Шаблон:Lang "(we/you pl./they) help".
- The comparative form of some adjectives (Pre-OE Шаблон:Lang < PGmc Шаблон:Lang, Pre-OE Шаблон:Lang < PGmc Шаблон:Lang), as compared to the base form – e.g. Шаблон:Lang "old", Шаблон:Lang "older", Шаблон:Lang "oldest" (cf. "elder, eldest").
- Throughout the first class of weak verbs (original suffix Шаблон:Lang), as compared to the forms from which the verbs were derived – e.g. Шаблон:Lang "food", Шаблон:Lang "to feed" < Pre-OE Шаблон:Lang; Шаблон:Lang "lore", Шаблон:Lang "to teach"; Шаблон:Lang "to fall", Шаблон:Lang "to fell".
- In the abstract nouns in Шаблон:Lang (PGmc Шаблон:Lang) corresponding to certain adjectives – e.g., Шаблон:Lang "strong", Шаблон:Lang "strength"; Шаблон:Lang "whole/hale", Шаблон:Lang "health"; Шаблон:Lang "foul", Шаблон:Lang "filth".
- In female forms of several nouns with the suffix Шаблон:Lang (PGmc Шаблон:Lang) – e.g., Шаблон:Lang "god", Шаблон:Lang "goddess" (cf. German Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang); Шаблон:Lang "fox", Шаблон:Lang "vixen".
- In i-stem abstract nouns derived from verbs (PGmc Шаблон:Lang) – e.g. Шаблон:Lang "a coming", Шаблон:Lang "to come"; Шаблон:Lang "a son (orig., a being born)", Шаблон:Lang "to bear"; Шаблон:Lang "a falling", Шаблон:Lang "to fall"; Шаблон:Lang "a bond", Шаблон:Lang "to bind". Note that in some cases the abstract noun has a different vowel than the corresponding verb, due to Proto-Indo-European ablaut.
Notes
- The phonologically expected umlaut of Шаблон:IPA is Шаблон:IPA. However, in many cases Шаблон:IPA appears. Most Шаблон:IPA in Old English stem from earlier Шаблон:IPA because of a change called a-restoration. This change was blocked when Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA followed, leaving Шаблон:IPA, which subsequently mutated to Шаблон:IPA. For example, in the case of Шаблон:Lang "tale" vs. Шаблон:Lang "to tell", the forms at one point in the early history of Old English were Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang, respectively. A-restoration converted Шаблон:Lang to Шаблон:Lang, but left Шаблон:Lang alone, and it subsequently evolved to Шаблон:Lang by i-mutation. The same process "should" have led to Шаблон:Lang instead of Шаблон:Lang. That is, the early forms were Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang. A-restoration converted Шаблон:Lang to Шаблон:Lang but left alone Шаблон:Lang, which would normally have evolved by umlaut to Шаблон:Lang. In this case, however, once a-restoration took effect, Шаблон:Lang was modified to Шаблон:Lang by analogy with Шаблон:Lang, and then later umlauted to Шаблон:Lang.
- A similar process resulted in the umlaut of Шаблон:IPA sometimes appearing as Шаблон:IPA and sometimes (usually, in fact) as Шаблон:IPA. In Old English, Шаблон:IPA generally stems from a-mutation of original Шаблон:IPA. A-mutation of Шаблон:IPA was blocked by a following Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA, which later triggered umlaut of the Шаблон:IPA to Шаблон:IPA, the reason for alternations between Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA being common. Umlaut of Шаблон:IPA to Шаблон:IPA occurs only when an original Шаблон:IPA was modified to Шаблон:IPA by analogy before umlaut took place. For example, Шаблон:Lang comes from late Proto-Germanic Шаблон:Lang, from earlier Шаблон:Lang. The plural in Proto-Germanic was Шаблон:Lang, with Шаблон:IPA unaffected by a-mutation due to the following Шаблон:IPA. At some point prior to i-mutation, the form Шаблон:Lang was modified to Шаблон:Lang by analogy with the singular form, which then allowed it to be umlauted to a form that resulted in Шаблон:Lang.
A few hundred years after i-umlaut began, another similar change called double umlaut occurred. It was triggered by an Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA in the third or fourth syllable of a word and mutated all previous vowels but worked only when the vowel directly preceding the Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA was Шаблон:IPA. This Шаблон:IPA typically appears as Шаблон:Angbr in Old English or is deleted:
- Шаблон:Lang "witch" < PGmc Шаблон:Lang (cf. Old High German Шаблон:Lang)
- Шаблон:Lang "embers" < Pre-OE Шаблон:Lang < PGmc Шаблон:Lang (cf. Old High German Шаблон:Lang)
- Шаблон:Lang "errand" < PGmc Шаблон:Lang (cf. Old Saxon Шаблон:Lang)
- Шаблон:Lang "to hasten" < archaic Шаблон:Lang < Pre-OE Шаблон:Lang
- Шаблон:Lang "upmost" < PGmc Шаблон:Lang (cf. Gothic Шаблон:Lang)
As shown by the examples, affected words typically had Шаблон:IPA in the second syllable and Шаблон:IPA in the first syllable. The Шаблон:IPA developed too late to break to Шаблон:Lang or to trigger palatalization of a preceding velar.
I-mutation in High German
I-mutation is visible in Old High German (OHG), c. 800 AD, only on short Шаблон:IPA, which was mutated to Шаблон:IPA (the so-called "primary umlaut"), although in certain phonological environments the mutation fails to occur. By then, it had already become partly phonologized, since some of the conditioning Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA sounds had been deleted or modified. The later history of German, however, shows that Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, as well as long vowels and diphthongs, and the remaining instances of Шаблон:IPA that had not been umlauted already, were also affected (the so-called "secondary umlaut"); starting in Middle High German, the remaining conditioning environments disappear and Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA appear as Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA in the appropriate environments.
That has led to a controversy over when and how i-mutation appeared on these vowels. Some (for example, Herbert Penzl)[19] have suggested that the vowels must have been modified without being indicated for lack of proper symbols and/or because the difference was still partly allophonic. Others (such as Joseph Voyles)[20] have suggested that the i-mutation of Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA was entirely analogical and pointed to the lack of i-mutation of these vowels in certain places where it would be expected, in contrast to the consistent mutation of Шаблон:IPA. PerhapsШаблон:Original research inline the answer is somewhere in between — i-mutation of Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA was indeed phonetic, occurring late in OHG, but later spread analogically to the environments where the conditioning had already disappeared by OHG (this is where failure of i-mutation is most likely).Шаблон:Citation needed It must also be kept in mind that it is an issue of relative chronology: already early in the history of attested OHG, some umlauting factors are known to have disappeared (such as word-internal Шаблон:IPA after geminates and clusters), and depending on the age of OHG umlaut, that could explain some cases where expected umlaut is missing. The whole question should now be reconsidered in the light of Fausto Cercignani's suggestion that the Old High German umlaut phenomena produced phonemic changes before the factors that triggered them off changed or disappeared, because the umlaut allophones gradually shifted to such a degree that they became distinctive in the phonological system of the language and contrastive at a lexical level.[21]
However, sporadic place-name attestations demonstrate the presence of the secondary umlaut already for the early 9th century, which makes it likely that all types of umlaut were indeed already present in Old High German, even if they were not indicated in the spelling. Presumably, they arose already in the early 8th century.[22] Ottar Grønvik, also in view of spellings of the type Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, and Шаблон:Angbr in the early attestations, affirms the old epenthesis theory, which views the origin of the umlaut vowels in the insertion of Шаблон:IPA after back vowels, not only in West, but also in North Germanic.[23] Fausto Cercignani prefers the assimilation theory and presents a history of the OHG umlauted vowels up to the present day.[24]
In modern German, umlaut as a marker of the plural of nouns is a regular feature of the language, and although umlaut generally is no longer a productive force in German, new plurals of this type can be created by analogy. Likewise, umlaut marks the comparative of many adjectives and other kinds of inflected and derived forms. Borrowed words have acquired umlaut as in Chöre 'choirs' or europäisch 'European'. Umlaut seems to be totally productive in connection with diminutive suffix -chen, as in Skandäl-chen 'little scandal'.
Because of the grammatical importance of such pairs, the German umlaut diacritic was developed, making the phenomenon very visible. The result in German is that the vowels written as Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, and Шаблон:Angbr become Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, and Шаблон:Angbr, and the diphthong Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA becomes Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA: Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-de "man" vs. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-de "men", Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-de "foot" vs. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-de "feet", Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-de "mouse" vs. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-de "mice".
In various dialects, the umlaut became even more important as a morphological marker of the plural after the apocope of final schwa (Шаблон:Lang); that rounded front vowels have become unrounded in many dialects does not prevent them from serving as markers of the plural given that they remain distinct from their non-umlauted counterparts (just like in English foot – feet, mouse – mice). The example Шаблон:Lang "guest" vs. Шаблон:Lang "guests" served as the model for analogical pairs like Шаблон:Lang "day" vs. Шаблон:Lang "days" (vs. standard Шаблон:Lang) and Шаблон:Lang "arm" vs. Шаблон:Lang "arms" (vs. standard Шаблон:Lang). Even plural forms like Шаблон:Lang "fish" which had never had a front rounded vowel in the first place were interpreted as such (i.e., as if from Middle High German **Шаблон:Lang) and led to singular forms like Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-de that are attested in some dialects.
I-mutation in Old Saxon
In Old Saxon, umlaut is much less apparent than in Old Norse. The only vowel that is regularly fronted before an Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA is short Шаблон:IPA: Шаблон:Lang – Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang – Шаблон:Lang. It must have had a greater effect than the orthography shows since all later dialects have a regular umlaut of both long and short vowels.
I-mutation in Dutch
Late Old Dutch saw a merger of Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, causing their umlauted results to merge as well, giving Шаблон:IPA. The lengthening in open syllables in early Middle Dutch then lengthened and lowered this short Шаблон:IPA to long Шаблон:IPA (spelled Шаблон:Angbr) in some words. This is parallel to the lowering of Шаблон:IPA in open syllables to Шаблон:IPA, as in Шаблон:Lang ("ship") – Шаблон:Lang ("ships").
In general, the effects of the Germanic umlaut in plural formation are limited.[25] One of the defining phonological features of Dutch, is the general absence of the I-mutation or secondary umlaut when dealing with long vowels. Unlike English and German, Dutch does not palatalize the long vowels, which are notably absent from the language.[26] Thus, for example, where modern German has Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA and English has feel Шаблон:IPA (from Proto-Germanic Шаблон:Lang), standard Dutch retains a back vowel in the stem in Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA. Thus, only two of the original Germanic vowels were affected by umlaut at all in Dutch: Шаблон:IPA, which became Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:IPA, which became Шаблон:IPA (spelled Шаблон:Angbr). As a result of this relatively sparse occurrence of umlaut, standard Dutch does not use umlaut as a grammatical marker. An exception is the noun Шаблон:Lang "city" which has the irregular umlauted plural Шаблон:Lang.
Later developments in Middle Dutch show that long vowels and diphthongs were not affected by umlaut in the more western dialects, including those in western Brabant and Holland that were most influential for standard Dutch. However in what is traditionally called the Cologne Expansion (the spread of certain West German features in the south-easternmost Dutch dialects during the High Medieval period) the more eastern and southeastern dialects of Dutch, including easternmost Brabantian and all of Limburgish have umlaut of long vowels (or in case of Limburgish, all rounded back vowels), however.[27] Consequently, these dialects also make grammatical use of umlaut to form plurals and diminutives, much as most other modern Germanic languages do. Compare Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:Lang "little man" from Шаблон:Lang.
North Germanic languages
Шаблон:Main Шаблон:See also Шаблон:Unreferenced section
The situation in Old Norse is complicated as there are two forms of i-mutation. Of these two, only one is phonologized.Шаблон:Clarify I-mutation in Old Norse is phonological:
- In Proto-Norse, if the syllable was heavy and followed by vocalic Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang > Шаблон:Lang, but Шаблон:Lang > Шаблон:Lang) or, regardless of syllable weight, if followed by consonantal Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang > Шаблон:Lang). The rule is not perfect, as some light syllables were still umlauted: Шаблон:Lang > Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang > Шаблон:Lang.
- In Old Norse, if the following syllable contains a remaining Proto-Norse Шаблон:Lang. For example, the root of the dative singular of u-stems are i-mutated as the desinence contains a Proto-Norse Шаблон:Lang, but the dative singular of a-stems is not, as their desinence stems from Proto-Norse Шаблон:Lang.
I-mutation is not phonological if the vowel of a long syllable is i-mutated by a syncopated i. I-mutation does not occur in short syllables.
| Original | Mutated | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang) | Шаблон:Lang (fair) / Шаблон:Lang (fairest) |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang (loose) / Шаблон:Lang (to loosen) |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang (to come) / Шаблон:Lang (comes) |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang (to row) / Шаблон:Lang (rows) |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang (up) / Шаблон:Lang (to lift up) |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang (foul) / Шаблон:Lang (filth) |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang (to lie) / Шаблон:Lang (lies) | |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang (sank) / Шаблон:Lang (to sink) |
See also
References
Bibliography
- Malmkjær, Kirsten (Ed.) (2002). The linguistics encyclopedia (2nd ed.). London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. Шаблон:ISBN.
- Campbell, Lyle (2004). Historical Linguistics: An Introduction (2nd ed.). Edinburgh University Press.
- Cercignani, Fausto, Early "Umlaut" Phenomena in the Germanic Languages, in «Language», 56/1, 1980, pp. 126–136.
- Cercignani, Fausto, Alleged Gothic Umlauts, in «Indogermanische Forschungen», 85, 1980, pp. 207–213.
- Cercignani, Fausto, The development of the Old High German umlauted vowels and the reflex of New High German /ɛ:/ in Present Standard German, in «Linguistik online», 113/1, 2022, pp. 45–57. [1].
- Cercignani, Fausto, On the Germanic and Old High German distance assimilation changes, in «Linguistik online», 116/4, 2022, pp. 41–59. [2].
- Шаблон:Citation
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Campbell, A. 1959. Old English Grammar. Oxford: Clarendon Press. §§624-27.
- ↑ Hogg, Richard M., ‘Phonology and Morphology’, in The Cambridge History of the English Language, Volume 1: The Beginnings to 1066, ed. by Richard M. Hogg (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 67–167 (p. 113).
- ↑ Table adapted from Campbell, Historical Linguistics (2nd edition), 2004, p. 23. See also Malmkjær, The Linguistics Encyclopedia (2nd Edition), 2002, pp. 230-233.
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Examples of Common Germanic Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang before Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang are vanishingly rare. Proto-Germanic Шаблон:Lang has been included in this table, however, to ensure that all the outcomes of i-umlaut in the modern languages are accounted for. Шаблон:Lang had been raised to Шаблон:Lang before Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang earlier in the development of Common Germanic. Шаблон:Lang, meanwhile, only existed where Шаблон:Lang had changed to Шаблон:Lang, which never happened before Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang. Most examples of the i-umlaut of Шаблон:Lang, therefore, occur in words borrowed into Germanic (such as Шаблон:Lang, from Latin Шаблон:Lang), or in words where Шаблон:Lang arose due to later processes specific to each daughter language of Germanic. See A. Campbell, Old English Grammar (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1959), §§112, 115, 195-96. Similarly, many examples of Шаблон:Lang in Modern German come from a later change of Шаблон:Lang to Шаблон:Lang (e.g. Шаблон:Lang > Шаблон:Lang > Шаблон:Lang 'king'): M. O'C. Walshe, A Middle High German Reader With Grammar, Notes and Glossary (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1974), §10.
- ↑ Duden, Die deutsche Rechtschreibung, 21st edition, p. 133.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ In medieval manuscripts, other digraphs could also be written using superscripts: in Шаблон:Lang ("flower"), for example, the Шаблон:Angbr was frequently placed above the Шаблон:Angbr, although this letter Шаблон:Angbr survives now only in Czech. Compare also the development of the tilde as a superscript Шаблон:Angbr.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 17,0 17,1 17,2 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Campbell, A. 1959. Old English Grammar. Oxford: Clarendon Press. §§112, 190–204, 288.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite encyclopedia
- ↑ Cercignani, Fausto (2022). On the Germanic and Old High German distance assimilation changes, in “Linguistik online”, 116/4, 2022, pp. 41–59. Online
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Cercignani, Fausto (2022). The development of the Old High German umlauted vowels and the reflex of New High German /ɛ:/ in Present Standard German. Linguistik Online. 113/1: 45–57. Online
- ↑ Robert B. Howell and Joseph C. Salmons: Umlautless Residues in Germanic, 1997, p. 93.
- ↑ R. Willemyns: Dutch: Biography of a Language, OUP USA, 2013, pp. 36.
- ↑ R. Belemans: Belgisch-Limburgs, Lannoo Uitgeverij, 2004, pp. 22-25
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