Английская Википедия:Gestapo
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Hatnote Шаблон:Pp-semi-indef Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:EngvarB Шаблон:Use shortened footnotes Шаблон:Infobox government agency
The Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:IPA-de; Шаблон:Translation), abbreviated Gestapo (Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:Respell, Шаблон:IPA-de),Шаблон:Sfn was the official secret police of Nazi Germany and in German-occupied Europe.
The force was created by Hermann Göring in 1933 by combining the various political police agencies of Prussia into one organisation. On 20 April 1934, oversight of the Gestapo passed to the head of the Schutzstaffel (SS), Heinrich Himmler, who was also appointed Chief of German Police by Hitler in 1936. Instead of being exclusively a Prussian state agency, the Gestapo became a national one as a sub-office of the Шаблон:Lang (SiPo; Security Police). From 27 September 1939, it was administered by the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA). It became known as Шаблон:Lang (Dept) 4 of the RSHA and was considered a sister organisation to the Шаблон:Lang (SD; Security Service).
The Gestapo committed widespread atrocities during its existence. The power of the Gestapo was used to focus upon political opponents, ideological dissenters (clergy and religious organisations), career criminals, the Sinti and Roma population, handicapped persons, homosexuals, and above all, the Jews.Шаблон:Sfn Those arrested by the Gestapo were often held without judicial process, and political prisoners throughout Germany—and from 1941, throughout the occupied territories under the Night and Fog Decree (Шаблон:Lang-de)—simply disappeared while in Gestapo custody.Шаблон:Sfn Contrary to popular perception, the Gestapo was actually a relatively small organization with limited surveillance capability; despite this the Gestapo proved extremely effective due to the willingness of ordinary Germans to report on fellow citizens. During World War II, the Gestapo played a key role in the Holocaust. After the war ended, the Gestapo was declared a criminal organisation by the International Military Tribunal (IMT) at the Nuremberg trials, and several top Gestapo members were sentenced to death.
History
After Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany, Hermann Göring—future commander of the Luftwaffe and the number two man in the Nazi Party—was named Interior Minister of Prussia.Шаблон:Sfn This gave Göring command of the largest police force in Germany. Soon afterward, Göring detached the political and intelligence sections from the police and filled their ranks with Nazis. On 26 April 1933, Göring merged the two units as the Шаблон:Lang, which was abbreviated by a post office clerk for a franking stamp and became known as the "Gestapo".Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn He originally wanted to name it the Secret Police Office (Шаблон:Lang), but the German initials, "GPA", were too similar to those of the Soviet State Political Directorate (Шаблон:Transliteration, or GPU).Шаблон:Sfn
The first commander of the Gestapo was Rudolf Diels, a protégé of Göring. Diels was appointed with the title of chief of Шаблон:Lang (Department 1a) of the Prussian Secret Police.Шаблон:Sfn Diels was best known as the primary interrogator of Marinus van der Lubbe after the Reichstag fire. In late 1933, the Reich Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick wanted to integrate all the police forces of the German states under his control. Göring outflanked him by removing the Prussian political and intelligence departments from the state interior ministry.Шаблон:Sfn Göring took over the Gestapo in 1934 and urged Hitler to extend the agency's authority throughout Germany. This represented a radical departure from German tradition, which held that law enforcement was (mostly) a Шаблон:Lang (state) and local matter. In this, he ran into conflict with Шаблон:Lang (SS) chief Heinrich Himmler who was police chief of the second most powerful German state, Bavaria. Frick did not have the political power to take on Göring by himself so he allied with Himmler. With Frick's support, Himmler (pushed on by his right-hand man, Reinhard Heydrich) took over the political police in state-after-state. Soon only Prussia was left.Шаблон:Sfn
Concerned that Diels was not ruthless enough to effectively counteract the power of the Шаблон:Lang (SA), Göring handed over control of the Gestapo to Himmler on 20 April 1934.Шаблон:Sfn Also on that date, Hitler appointed Himmler chief of all German police outside Prussia. Heydrich, named chief of the Gestapo by Himmler on 22 April 1934, also continued as head of the SS Security Service (Шаблон:Lang; SD).Шаблон:Sfn Himmler and Heydrich both immediately began installing their own personnel in select positions, several of whom were directly from the Bavarian Political Police, such as Heinrich Müller, Franz Josef Huber and Josef Meisinger.Шаблон:Sfn Many of the Gestapo employees in the newly established offices were young and highly educated in a wide variety of academic fields and moreover, represented a new generation of National Socialist adherents, who were hard-working, efficient, and prepared to carry the Nazi state forward through the persecution of their political opponents.Шаблон:Sfn
By the spring of 1934, Himmler's SS controlled the SD and the Gestapo, but for him, there was still a problem, as technically the SS (and the Gestapo by proxy) was subordinated to the SA, which was under the command of Ernst Röhm.Шаблон:Sfn Himmler wanted to free himself entirely from Röhm, whom he viewed as an obstacle.Шаблон:Sfn Röhm's position was menacing as more than 4.5 million men fell under his command once the militias and veterans organisations were absorbed by the SA,Шаблон:Sfn a fact which fuelled Röhm's aspirations; his dream of fusing the SA and Reichswehr together was undermining Hitler's relationships with the leadership of Germany's armed forces.Шаблон:Sfn Several Nazi chieftains, among them Göring, Joseph Goebbels, Rudolf Hess, and Himmler, began a concerted campaign to convince Hitler to take action against Röhm.Шаблон:Sfn Both the SD and Gestapo released information concerning an imminent putsch by the SA.Шаблон:Sfn Once persuaded, Hitler acted by setting Himmler's SS into action, who then proceeded to murder over 100 of Hitler's identified antagonists. The Gestapo supplied the information which implicated the SA and ultimately enabled Himmler and Heydrich to emancipate themselves entirely from the organisation.Шаблон:Sfn For the Gestapo, the next two years following the Night of the Long Knives, a term describing the putsch against Röhm and the SA, were characterised by "behind-the-scenes political wrangling over policing".Шаблон:Sfn
On 17 June 1936, Hitler decreed the unification of all police forces in Germany and named Himmler as Chief of German Police.Шаблон:Sfn This action effectively merged the police into the SS and removed it from Frick's control. Himmler was nominally subordinate to Frick as police chief, but as Шаблон:Lang, he answered only to Hitler. This move also gave Himmler operational control over Germany's entire detective force.Шаблон:Sfn The Gestapo became a national state agency. Himmler also gained authority over all of Germany's uniformed law enforcement agencies, which were amalgamated into the new Шаблон:Lang (Orpo; Order Police), which became a national agency under SS general Kurt Daluege.Шаблон:Sfn Shortly thereafter, Himmler created the Шаблон:Lang (Kripo; Criminal Police), merging it with the Gestapo into the Шаблон:Lang (SiPo; Security Police), under Heydrich's command.Шаблон:Sfn Heinrich Müller was at that time the Gestapo operations chief.Шаблон:Sfn He answered to Heydrich, Heydrich answered only to Himmler, and Himmler answered only to Hitler.Шаблон:Sfn
The Gestapo had the authority to investigate cases of treason, espionage, sabotage and criminal attacks on the Nazi Party and Germany. The basic Gestapo law passed by the government in 1936 gave the Gestapo Шаблон:Lang to operate without judicial review—in effect, putting it above the law.Шаблон:Sfn The Gestapo was specifically exempted from responsibility to administrative courts, where citizens normally could sue the state to conform to laws. As early as 1935, a Prussian administrative court had ruled that the Gestapo's actions were not subject to judicial review. The SS officer Werner Best, one-time head of legal affairs in the Gestapo,Шаблон:Sfn summed up this policy by saying, "As long as the police carries out the will of the leadership, it is acting legally".Шаблон:Sfn
On 27 September 1939, the security and police agencies of Nazi Germany—with the exception of the Order Police—were consolidated into the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA), headed by Heydrich.Шаблон:Sfn The Gestapo became Шаблон:Lang (Department IV) of RSHA and Müller became the Gestapo Chief, with Heydrich as his immediate superior.Шаблон:Sfn After Heydrich's 1942 assassination, Himmler assumed the leadership of the RSHA until January 1943, when Ernst Kaltenbrunner was appointed chief.Шаблон:Sfn Müller remained the Gestapo Chief. His direct subordinate Adolf Eichmann headed the Gestapo's Office of Resettlement and then its Office of Jewish Affairs (Шаблон:Lang or Sub-Department IV, Section B4).Шаблон:Sfn During the Holocaust, Eichmann's department within the Gestapo coordinated the mass deportation of European Jews to the Nazis' extermination camps.
The power of the Gestapo included the use of what was called, Шаблон:Lang—"protective custody", a euphemism for the power to imprison people without judicial proceedings.Шаблон:Sfn An oddity of the system was that the prisoner had to sign his own Шаблон:Lang, an order declaring that the person had requested imprisonment—presumably out of fear of personal harm. In addition, political prisoners throughout Germany—and from 1941, throughout the occupied territories under the Night and Fog Decree (Шаблон:Lang-de)—simply disappeared while in Gestapo custody.Шаблон:Sfn Up to 30 April 1944, at least 6,639 persons were arrested under Шаблон:Lang orders.Шаблон:Sfn However, the total number of people who disappeared as a result of this decree is not known.Шаблон:Sfn
Counterintelligence
The Polish government-in-exile in London during World War II received sensitive military information about Nazi Germany from agents and informants throughout Europe. After Germany conquered Poland (in the autumn of 1939), Gestapo officials believed that they had neutralised Polish intelligence activities. However, certain Polish information about the movement of German police and SS units to the East during 1941 German invasion of the Soviet Union was similar to information British intelligence secretly obtained through intercepting and decoding German police and SS messages sent by radio telegraphy.Шаблон:Sfn
In 1942, the Gestapo discovered a cache of Polish intelligence documents in Prague and were surprised to see that Polish agents and informants had been gathering detailed military information and smuggling it out to London, via Budapest and Istanbul. The Poles identified and tracked German military trains to the Eastern front and identified four Order Police battalions sent to occupied areas of the Soviet Union in October 1941 that engaged in war crimes and mass murder.Шаблон:Sfn
Polish agents also gathered detailed information about the morale of German soldiers in the East. After uncovering a sample of the information the Poles had reported, Gestapo officials concluded that Polish intelligence activity represented a very serious danger to Germany. As late as 6 June 1944, Heinrich Müller—concerned about the leakage of information to the Allies—set up a special unit called Шаблон:Lang that was meant to root out the Polish intelligence network in western and southwestern Europe.Шаблон:Sfn
In Austria, there were groups still loyal to the Habsburgs, who unlike most across the Greater German Reich, remained determined to resist the Nazis. These groups became a special focus of the Gestapo because of their insurrectionist goals—the overthrow of the Nazi regime, the re-establishment of an independent Austria under Habsburg leadership—and Hitler's hatred of the Habsburg family. Hitler vehemently rejected the centuries' old Habsburg pluralist principles of "live and let live" with regard to ethnic groups, peoples, minorities, religions, cultures and languages.Шаблон:Sfn Habsburg loyalist Karl Burian's (who was later executed) plan to blow up the Gestapo headquarters in Vienna represented a unique attempt to act aggressively against the Gestapo. Burian's group had also set up a secret courier service to Otto von Habsburg in Belgium. Individuals in Austrian resistance groups led by Heinrich Maier also managed to pass along the plans and the location of production facilities for V-1, V-2 rockets, Tiger tanks, and aircraft (Messerschmitt Bf 109, Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet, etc.) to the Allies.Шаблон:Sfn The Maier group informed very early about the mass murder of Jews. The resistance group, later discovered by the Gestapo because of a double agent of the Abwehr, was in contact with Allen Dulles, the head of the US Office of Strategic Services in Switzerland. Although Maier and the other group members were severely tortured, the Gestapo did not uncover the essential involvement of the resistance group in Operation Crossbow and Operation Hydra.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn
Suppression of resistance and persecution
Early in the regime's existence, harsh measures were meted out to political opponents and those who resisted Nazi doctrine, such as members of the Communist Party of Germany (KPD); a role originally performed by the SA until the SD and Gestapo undermined their influence and took control of Reich security.Шаблон:Sfn Because the Gestapo seemed omniscient and omnipotent, the atmosphere of fear they created led to an overestimation of their reach and strength; a faulty assessment which hampered the operational effectiveness of underground resistance organisations.Шаблон:Sfn
Trade unions
Shortly after the Nazis came to power, they decided to dissolve the 28 federations of the General German Trade Union Confederation, because Hitler—after noting their success in the works council elections—intended to consolidate all German workers under the Nazi government's administration, a decision he made on 7 April 1933.Шаблон:Sfn As a preface to this action, Hitler decreed May 1 as National Labor Day to celebrate German workers, a move the trade union leaders welcomed. With their trade union flags waving, Hitler gave a rousing speech to the 1.5 million people assembled on Berlin's Шаблон:Lang that was nationally broadcast, during which he extolled the nation's revival and working class solidarity.Шаблон:Sfn On the following day, the newly formed Gestapo officers, who had been shadowing some 58 trade union leaders, arrested them wherever they could find them—many in their homes.Шаблон:Sfn Meanwhile, the SA and police occupied trade union headquarters, arrested functionaries, confiscated their property and assets; all by design so as to be replaced on 12 May by the German Labour Front (DAF), a Nazi organisation placed under the leadership of Robert Ley.Шаблон:Sfn For their part, this was the first time the Gestapo operated under its new name since its 26 April 1933 founding in Prussia.Шаблон:Sfn
Religious dissent
Many parts of Germany (where religious dissent existed upon the Nazi seizure of power) saw a rapid transformation; a change as noted by the Gestapo in conservative towns such as Würzburg, where people acquiesced to the regime either through accommodation, collaboration, or simple compliance.Шаблон:Sfn Increasing religious objections to Nazi policies led the Gestapo to carefully monitor church organisations. For the most part, members of the church did not offer political resistance but simply wanted to ensure that organizational doctrine remained intact.Шаблон:Sfn
However, the Nazi regime sought to suppress any source of ideology other than its own, and set out to muzzle or crush the churches in the so-called Шаблон:Lang. When Church leaders (clergy) voiced their misgiving about the euthanasia program and Nazi racial policies, Hitler intimated that he considered them "traitors to the people" and went so far as to call them "the destroyers of Germany".Шаблон:Sfn The extreme anti-semitism and neo-pagan heresies of the Nazis caused some Christians to outright resist,Шаблон:Sfn and Pope Pius XI to issue the encyclical Mit brennender Sorge denouncing Nazism and warning Catholics against joining or supporting the Party. Some pastors, like the Protestant clergyman Dietrich Bonhoeffer, paid for their opposition with their lives.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn
In an effort to counter the strength and influence of spiritual resistance, Nazi records reveal that the Gestapo's Шаблон:Lang monitored the activities of bishops very closely—instructing that agents be set up in every diocese, that the bishops' reports to the Vatican should be obtained and that the bishops' areas of activity must be found out. Deans were to be targeted as the "eyes and ears of the bishops" and a "vast network" established to monitor the activities of ordinary clergy: "The importance of this enemy is such that inspectors of security police and of the security service will make this group of people and the questions discussed by them their special concern".Шаблон:Sfn
In Dachau: The Official History 1933–1945, Paul Berben wrote that clergy were watched closely, and frequently denounced, arrested and sent to Nazi concentration camps: "One priest was imprisoned in Dachau for having stated that there were good folk in England too; another suffered the same fate for warning a girl who wanted to marry an S.S. man after abjuring the Catholic faith; yet another because he conducted a service for a deceased communist". Others were arrested simply on the basis of being "suspected of activities hostile to the State" or that there was reason to "suppose that his dealings might harm society".Шаблон:Sfn Over 2,700 Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox clergy were imprisoned at Dachau alone. After Heydrich (who was staunchly anti-Catholic and anti-Christian) was assassinated in Prague, his successor, Ernst Kaltenbrunner, relaxed some of the policies and then disbanded Department IVB (religious opponents) of the Gestapo.Шаблон:Sfn
Homosexuality
Violence and arrest were not confined to that opposing political parties, membership in trade unions, or those with dissenting religious opinions, but also homosexuality. It was viewed negatively by Hitler.Шаблон:Sfn Homosexuals were correspondingly considered a threat to the Шаблон:Lang (National Community).Шаблон:Sfn From the Nazis rise to national power in 1933, the number of court verdicts against homosexuals steadily increased and only declined once the Second World War started.Шаблон:Sfn In 1934, a special Gestapo office was set up in Berlin to deal with homosexuality.Шаблон:Sfn
Despite male homosexuality being considered a greater danger to "national survival", lesbianism was likewise viewed as unacceptable—deemed gender nonconformity—and a number of individual reports on lesbians can be found in Gestapo files.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn Between 1933 and 1935, some 4,000 men were arrested; between 1936 and 1939, another 30,000 men were convicted.Шаблон:Sfn If homosexuals showed any signs of sympathy to the Nazis' identified racial enemies, they were considered an even greater danger.Шаблон:Sfn According to Gestapo case files, the majority of those arrested for homosexuality were males between eighteen and twenty-five years of age.Шаблон:Sfn
Student opposition
Between June 1942 and March 1943, student protests were calling for an end to the Nazi regime. These included the non-violent resistance of Hans and Sophie Scholl, two leaders of the White Rose student group.Шаблон:Sfn However, resistance groups and those who were in moral or political opposition to the Nazis were stalled by the fear of reprisals from the Gestapo. Fearful of an internal overthrow, the forces of the Gestapo were unleashed on the opposition. Groups like the White Rose and others, such as the Edelweiss Pirates, and the Swing Youth, were placed under close Gestapo observation. Some participants were sent to concentration camps. Leading members of the most famous of these groups, the White Rose, were arrested by the police and turned over to the Gestapo. For several leaders the punishment was death.Шаблон:Sfn During the first five months of 1943, the Gestapo arrested thousands suspected of resistance activities and carried out numerous executions. Student opposition leaders were executed in late February, and a major opposition organisation, the Oster Circle, was destroyed in April 1943.Шаблон:Sfn Efforts to resist the Nazi regime amounted to very little and had only minor chances of success, particularly since a broad percentage of the German people did not support such actions.Шаблон:Sfn
General opposition and military conspiracy
Between 1934 and 1938, opponents of the Nazi regime and their fellow travellers began to emerge. Among the first to speak out were religious dissenters but following in their wake were educators, aristocratic businessmen, office workers, teachers, and others from nearly every walk of life.Шаблон:Sfn Most people quickly learned that open opposition was dangerous since Gestapo informants and agents were widespread. However, a significant number of them still worked against the National Socialist government.Шаблон:Sfn
In May 1935, the Gestapo broke up and arrested members of the "Markwitz Circle", a group of former socialists in contact with Otto Strasser, who sought Hitler's downfall.Шаблон:Sfn From the mid-1930s into the early 1940s—various groups made up of communists, idealists, working-class people, and far-right conservative opposition organisations covertly fought against Hitler's government, and several of them fomented plots that included Hitler's assassination. Nearly all of them, including: the Römer Group, Robby Group, Solf Circle, Шаблон:Lang, the Party of the Radical Middle Class, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang were either discovered or infiltrated by the Gestapo. This led to corresponding arrests, being sent to concentration camps and execution.Шаблон:Sfn One of the methods employed by the Gestapo to contend with these resistance factions was 'protective detention' which facilitated the process in expediting dissenters to concentration camps and against which there was no legal defence.Шаблон:Sfn
Early efforts to resist the Nazis with aid from abroad were hindered when the opposition's peace feelers to the Western Allies did not meet with success. This was partly because of the Venlo incident of 9 November 1939,Шаблон:Sfn in which SD and Gestapo agents, posing as anti-Nazis in the Netherlands, kidnapped two British Secret Intelligence Service (SIS) officers after having lured them to a meeting to discuss peace terms. This prompted Winston Churchill to ban any further contact with the German opposition.Шаблон:Sfn Later, the British and Americans did not want to deal with anti-Nazis because they were fearful that the Soviet Union would believe they were attempting to make deals behind their back.Шаблон:Efn
The German opposition was in an unenviable position by the late spring and early summer of 1943. On one hand, it was next to impossible for them to overthrow Hitler and the party; on the other, the Allied demand for an unconditional surrender meant no opportunity for a compromise peace, which left the military and conservative aristocrats who opposed the regime no option (in their eyes) other than continuing the military struggle.Шаблон:Sfn Despite the fear of the Gestapo after mass arrests and executions in the spring, the opposition still plotted and planned. One of the more famous schemes, Operation Valkyrie, involved a number of senior German officers and was carried out by Colonel Claus Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg. In an attempt to assassinate Hitler, Stauffenberg planted a bomb underneath a conference table inside the Wolf's Lair field headquarters.Шаблон:Sfn Known as the 20 July plot, this assassination attempt failed and Hitler was only slightly injured. Reports indicate that the Gestapo was caught unaware of this plot as they did not have sufficient protections in place at the appropriate locations nor did they take any preventative steps.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Stauffenberg and his group were shot on 21 July 1944; meanwhile, his fellow conspirators were rounded up by the Gestapo and sent to a concentration camp. Thereafter, there was a show trial overseen by Roland Freisler, followed by their execution.Шаблон:Sfn
Some Germans were convinced that it was their duty to apply all possible expedients to end the war as quickly as possible. Sabotage efforts were undertaken by members of the Шаблон:Lang (military intelligence) leadership, as they recruited people known to oppose the Nazi regime.Шаблон:Sfn The Gestapo cracked down ruthlessly on dissidents in Germany, just as they did everywhere else. Opposition became more difficult. Arrests, torture, and executions were common. Terror against "state enemies" had become a way of life to such a degree that the Gestapo's presence and methods were eventually normalised in the minds of people living in Nazi Germany.Шаблон:Sfn
Organisation
In January 1933, Hermann Göring, Hitler's minister without portfolio, was appointed the head of the Prussian Police and began filling the political and intelligence units of the Prussian Secret Police with Nazi Party members.Шаблон:Sfn A year after the organisation's inception, Göring wrote in a British publication about having created the organisation on his own initiative and how he was "chiefly responsible" for the elimination of the Marxist and Communist threat to Germany and Prussia.Шаблон:Sfn Describing the activities of the organisation, Göring boasted about the utter ruthlessness required for Germany's recovery, the establishment of concentration camps for that purpose, and even went on to claim that excesses were committed in the beginning, recounting how beatings took place here and there.Шаблон:Sfn On 26 April 1933, he reorganised the force's Шаблон:Lang as the Шаблон:Lang (better-known by the "sobriquet" Gestapo),Шаблон:Sfn a secret state police intended to serve the Nazi cause.Шаблон:Sfn Less than two weeks later in early May 1933, the Gestapo moved into their Berlin headquarters at Prinz-Albrecht-Straße 8.Шаблон:Sfn
As a result of its 1936 merger with the Kripo (National criminal police) to form sub-units of the Шаблон:Lang (SiPo; Security Police), the Gestapo was officially classified as a government agency. Himmler's subsequent appointment to Шаблон:Lang (Chief of German Police) and status as Шаблон:Lang made him independent of Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick's nominal control.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
The SiPo was placed under the direct command of Reinhard Heydrich who was already chief of the Nazi Party's intelligence service, the Шаблон:Lang (SD).Шаблон:Sfn The idea was to fully identify and integrate the party agency (SD) with the state agency (SiPo). Most SiPo members joined the SS and held a rank in both organisations. Nevertheless, in practice there was jurisdictional overlap and operational conflict between the SD and Gestapo.Шаблон:Sfn
In September 1939, the SiPo and SD were merged into the newly created Шаблон:Lang (RSHA; Reich Security Main Office). Both the Gestapo and Kripo became distinct departments within the RSHA.Шаблон:Sfn Although the Шаблон:Lang was officially disbanded, the term SiPo was figuratively used to describe any RSHA personnel throughout the remainder of the war. In lieu of naming convention changes, the original construct of the SiPo, Gestapo, and Kripo cannot be fully comprehended as "discrete entities", since they ultimately formed "a conglomerate in which each was wedded to each other and the SS through its Security Service, the SD".Шаблон:Sfn
The creation of the RSHA represented the formalisation, at the top level, of the relationship under which the SD served as the intelligence agency for the security police. A similar co-ordination existed in the local offices. Within Germany and areas which were incorporated within the Reich for the purpose of civil administration, local offices of the Gestapo, criminal police, and SD were formally separate. They were subject to co-ordination by inspectors of the security police and SD on the staffs of the local higher SS and police leaders, however, and one of the principal functions of the local SD units was to serve as the intelligence agency for the local Gestapo units. In the occupied territories, the formal relationship between local units of the Gestapo, criminal police, and SD was slightly closer.Шаблон:Sfn
The Gestapo became known as RSHA Шаблон:Lang ("Department or Office IV") with Heinrich Müller as its chief.Шаблон:Sfn In January 1943, Himmler appointed Ernst Kaltenbrunner RSHA chief; almost seven months after Heydrich had been assassinated.Шаблон:Sfn The specific internal departments of Шаблон:Lang were as follows:Шаблон:Sfn
- Department A (Political Opponents)
- Communists (A1)
- Counter-sabotage (A2)
- Reactionaries, liberals and opposition (A3)
- Protective services (A4)
- Department B (Sects and Churches)
- Catholicism (B1)
- Protestantism (B2)
- Freemasons and other churches (B3)
- Jewish affairs (B4)
- Department C (Administration and Party Affairs), central administrative office of the Gestapo, responsible for card files of all personnel including all officials.
- Files, card, indexes, information and administration (C1)
- Protective custody (C2)
- Press office (C3)
- NSDAP matters (C4)
- Department D (Occupied Territories), administration for regions outside the Шаблон:Lang.
- Protectorate affairs, Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, regions of Yugoslavia, Greece (D1)
- General Government(D2)
- Confidential office – hostile foreigners, emigrants (D3)
- Occupied territories – France, Belgium, Holland, Norway, Denmark (D4)
- Occupied Eastern territories (D5)
- Department E (Security and counterintelligence)
- In the Шаблон:Lang (E1)
- Policy and economic formation (E2)
- West (E3)
- Scandinavia (North)(E4)
- East (E5)
- South (E6)
In 1941 Шаблон:Lang, the central command office of the Gestapo was formed. However, these internal departments remained and the Gestapo continued to be a department under the RSHA umbrella. The local offices of the Gestapo, known as Gestapo Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang, answered to a local commander known as the Шаблон:Lang ("Inspector of the Security Police and Security Service") who, in turn, was under the dual command of Шаблон:Lang of the Gestapo and also his local SS and Police Leader.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
In total, there were some fifty-four regional Gestapo offices across the German federal states.Шаблон:Sfn The Gestapo also maintained offices at all Nazi concentration camps, held an office on the staff of the SS and Police Leaders, and supplied personnel as needed to formations such as the Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn Personnel assigned to these auxiliary duties were often removed from the Gestapo chain of command and fell under the authority of branches of the SS.Шаблон:Sfn It was the Gestapo chief, SS-Brigadierführer Heinrich Müller, who kept Hitler abreast of the killing operations in the Soviet Union and who issued orders to the four Шаблон:Lang that their continual work in the east was to be "presented to the Führer."Шаблон:Sfn
Female Criminal Investigation Career
According to regulations issued by the Reich Security Main Office in 1940, women who had been trained in social work or having a similar education could be hired as female detectives. Female youth leaders, lawyers, business administrators with experience in social work, female leaders in the Шаблон:Lang and personnel administrators in the Bund Deutscher Mädel were hired as detectives after a one-year course, if they had several years professional experience. Later, nurses, kindergarten teachers, and trained female commercial employees with an aptitude for police work were hired as female detectives after a two-year course as Шаблон:Lang and could promote to a Шаблон:Lang. After another two or three years in that grade, the female detective could advance to Шаблон:Lang. Further promotions to Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang were also possible.Шаблон:Sfn
Membership
In 1933, there was no purge of the German police forces.Шаблон:Sfn The vast majority of Gestapo officers came from the police forces of the Weimar Republic; members of the SS, the SA, and the Nazi Party also joined the Gestapo but were less numerous.Шаблон:Sfn By March 1937, the Gestapo employed an estimated 6,500 people in fifty-four regional offices across the Reich.Шаблон:Sfn Additional staff were added in March 1938 consequent the annexation of Austria and again in October 1938 with the acquisition of the Sudetenland.Шаблон:Sfn In 1939, only 3,000 out of the total of 20,000 Gestapo men held SS ranks, and in most cases, these were honorary.Шаблон:Sfn One man who served in the Prussian Gestapo in 1933 recalled that most of his co-workers "were by no means Nazis. For the most part they were young professional civil service officers..."Шаблон:Sfn The Nazis valued police competence more than politics, so in general in 1933, almost all of the men who served in the various state police forces under the Weimar Republic stayed on in their jobs.Шаблон:Sfn In Würzburg, which is one of the few places in Germany where most of the Gestapo records survived, every member of the Gestapo was a career policeman or had a police background.Шаблон:Sfn
The Canadian historian Robert Gellately wrote that most Gestapo men were not Nazis, but at the same time were not opposed to the Nazi regime, which they were willing to serve, in whatever task they were called upon to perform.Шаблон:Sfn Over time, membership in the Gestapo included ideological training, particularly once Werner Best assumed a leading role for training in April 1936. Employing biological metaphors, Best emphasised a doctrine which encouraged members of the Gestapo to view themselves as 'doctors' to the 'national body' in the struggle against "pathogens" and "diseases"; among the implied sicknesses were "communists, Freemasons, and the churches—and above and behind all these stood the Jews".Шаблон:Sfn Heydrich thought along similar lines and advocated both defensive and offensive measures on the part of the Gestapo, so as to prevent any subversion or destruction of the National Socialist body.Шаблон:Sfn
Whether trained as police originally or not, Gestapo agents themselves were shaped by their socio-political environment. Historian George C. Browder contends that there was a four-part process (authorisation, bolstering, routinisation, and dehumanisation) in effect which legitimised the psycho-social atmosphere conditioning members of the Gestapo to radicalised violence.Шаблон:Sfn Browder also describes a sandwich effect, where from above; Gestapo agents were subjected to ideologically oriented racism and criminal biological theories; and from below, the Gestapo was transformed by SS personnel who did not have the proper police training, which showed in their propensity for unrestrained violence.Шаблон:Sfn This admixture certainly shaped the Gestapo's public image which they sought to maintain despite their increasing workload; an image which helped them identify and eliminate enemies of the Nazi state.Шаблон:Sfn
Population ratios, methods and effectiveness
Contrary to popular belief, the Gestapo was not the all-pervasive, omnipotent agency in German society.Шаблон:Sfn In Germany proper, many towns and cities had fewer than 50 official Gestapo personnel. For example, in 1939 Stettin and Frankfurt am Main only had a total of 41 Gestapo men combined.Шаблон:Sfn In Düsseldorf, the local Gestapo office of only 281 men were responsible for the entire Lower Rhine region, which comprised 4 million people.Шаблон:Sfn "V-men", as undercover Gestapo agents were known, were used to infiltrate Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) and Communist opposition groups, but this was more the exception than the rule.Шаблон:Sfn The Gestapo office in Saarbrücken had 50 full-term informers in 1939.Шаблон:Sfn The District Office in Nuremberg, which had the responsibility for all of northern Bavaria, employed a total of 80–100 full-term informers between 1943 and 1945.Шаблон:Sfn The majority of Gestapo informers were not full-term employees working undercover, but were rather ordinary citizens who chose to denounce other people to the Gestapo.Шаблон:Sfn
According to Canadian historian Robert Gellately's analysis of the local offices established, the Gestapo was—for the most part—made up of bureaucrats and clerical workers who depended upon denunciations by citizens for their information. Gellately argued that it was because of the widespread willingness of Germans to inform on each other to the Gestapo that Germany between 1933 and 1945 was a prime example of panopticism.Шаблон:Sfn The Gestapo—at times—was overwhelmed with denunciations and most of its time was spent sorting out the credible from the less credible denunciations.Шаблон:Sfn Many of the local offices were understaffed and overworked, struggling with the paper load caused by so many denunciations.Шаблон:Sfn Gellately has also suggested that the Gestapo was "a reactive organisation...constructed within German society and whose functioning was structurally dependent on the continuing co-operation of German citizens".Шаблон:Sfn
After 1939, when many Gestapo personnel were called up for war-related work such as service with the Шаблон:Lang, the level of overwork and understaffing at the local offices increased.Шаблон:Sfn For information about what was happening in German society, the Gestapo continued to be mostly dependent upon denunciations.Шаблон:Sfn 80% of all Gestapo investigations were started in response to information provided by denunciations by ordinary Germans; while 10% were started in response to information provided by other branches of the German government and another 10% started in response to information that the Gestapo itself unearthed.Шаблон:Sfn The information supplied by denunciations often led the Gestapo in determining who was arrested.Шаблон:Sfn
The popular picture of the Gestapo with its spies everywhere terrorising German society has been rejected by many historians as a myth invented after the war as a cover for German society's widespread complicity in allowing the Gestapo to work.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Work done by social historians such as Detlev Peukert, Robert Gellately, Reinhard Mann, Inge Marssolek, René Otto, Klaus-Michael Mallmann and Paul Gerhard, which by focusing on what the local offices were doing has shown the GestapoШаблон:'s almost total dependence on denunciations from ordinary Germans, and very much discredited the older "Big Brother" picture with the Gestapo having its eyes and ears everywhere.Шаблон:Sfn For example, of the 84 cases in Würzburg of Шаблон:Lang ("race defilement"—sexual relations with non-Aryans), 45 (54%) were started in response to denunciations by ordinary people, two (2%) by information provided by other branches of the government, 20 (24%) via information gained during interrogations of people relating to other matters, four (5%) from information from (Nazi) NSDAP organisations, two (2%) during "political evaluations" and 11 (13%) have no source listed while none were started by GestapoШаблон:'s own "observations" of the people of Würzburg.Шаблон:Sfn
An examination of 213 denunciations in Düsseldorf showed that 37% were motivated by personal conflicts, no motive could be established in 39%, and 24% were motivated by support for the Nazi regime.Шаблон:Sfn The Gestapo always showed a special interest in denunciations concerning sexual matters, especially cases concerning Шаблон:Lang with Jews or between Germans and foreigners, in particular Polish slave workers; the Gestapo applied even harsher methods to the foreign workers in the country, especially those from Poland,Шаблон:Sfn Jews, Catholics and homosexuals. Шаблон:Sfn As time went by, anonymous denunciations to the Gestapo caused trouble to various NSDAP officials, who often found themselves being investigated by the Gestapo.Шаблон:Sfn
Of the political cases, 61 people were investigated for suspicion of belonging to the KPD, 44 for the SPD and 69 for other political parties.Шаблон:Sfn Most of the political investigations took place between 1933 and 1935 with the all-time high of 57 cases in 1935.Шаблон:Sfn After that year, political investigations declined with only 18 investigations in 1938, 13 in 1939, two in 1941, seven in 1942, four in 1943 and one in 1944.Шаблон:Sfn The "other" category associated with non-conformity included everything from a man who drew a caricature of Hitler to a Catholic teacher suspected of being lukewarm about teaching National Socialism in his classroom.Шаблон:Sfn The "administrative control" category concerned those who were breaking the law concerning residency in the city.Шаблон:Sfn The "conventional criminality" category concerned economic crimes such as money laundering, smuggling and homosexuality.Шаблон:Sfn
Normal methods of investigation included various forms of blackmail, threats and extortion to secure "confessions".Шаблон:Sfn Beyond that, sleep deprivation and various forms of harassment were used as investigative methods.Шаблон:Sfn Failing that, torture and planting evidence were common methods of resolving a case, especially if the case concerned someone Jewish.Шаблон:Sfn Brutality on the part of interrogators—often prompted by denunciations and followed with roundups—enabled the Gestapo to uncover numerous resistance networks; it also made them seem like they knew everything and could do anything they wanted.Шаблон:Sfn
While the total number of Gestapo officials was limited when contrasted against the represented populations, the average Шаблон:Lang (Nazi term for the "member of the German people") was typically not under observation, so the statistical ratio between Gestapo officials and inhabitants is "largely worthless and of little significance" according to some recent scholars.Шаблон:Sfn As historian Eric Johnson remarked, "The Nazi terror was selective terror", with its focus upon political opponents, ideological dissenters (clergy and religious organisations), career criminals, the Sinti and Roma population, handicapped persons, homosexuals and above all, upon the Jews.Шаблон:Sfn "Selective terror" by the Gestapo, as mentioned by Johnson, is also supported by historian Richard Evans who states that, "Violence and intimidation rarely touched the lives of most ordinary Germans. Denunciation was the exception, not the rule, as far as the behaviour of the vast majority of Germans was concerned."Шаблон:Sfn The involvement of ordinary Germans in denunciations also needs to be put into perspective so as not to exonerate the Gestapo. As Evans makes clear, "...it was not the ordinary German people who engaged in surveillance, it was the Gestapo; nothing happened until the Gestapo received a denunciation, and it was the Gestapo's active pursuit of deviance and dissent that was the only thing that gave denunciations meaning."Шаблон:Sfn The Gestapo's effectiveness remained in the ability to "project" omnipotence...they co-opted the assistance of the German population by using denunciations to their advantage; proving in the end a powerful, ruthless and effective organ of terror under the Nazi regime that was seemingly everywhere.Шаблон:Sfn Lastly, the Gestapo's effectiveness, while aided by denunciations and the watchful eye of ordinary Germans, was more the result of the co-ordination and co-operation amid the various police organs within Germany, the assistance of the SS, and the support provided by the various Nazi Party organisations; all of them together forming an organised persecution network.Шаблон:Sfn
Operations in Nazi-occupied territories
As an instrument of Nazi power, terror, and repression, the Gestapo operated throughout occupied Europe.Шаблон:Sfn Much like their affiliated organisations, the SS and the SD, the Gestapo "played a leading part" in enslaving and deporting workers from occupied territory, torturing and executing civilians, singling out and murdering Jews, and subjecting Allied prisoners of war to terrible treatment.Шаблон:Sfn To this end, the Gestapo was "a vital component both in Nazi repression and the Holocaust."Шаблон:Sfn Once the German armies advanced into enemy territory, they were accompanied by Шаблон:Lang staffed by officers from the Gestapo and Kripo, who usually operated in the rear areas to administer and police the occupied land.Шаблон:Sfn Whenever a region came fully under German military occupational jurisdiction, the Gestapo administered all executive actions under the military commander's authority, albeit operating relatively independent of it.Шаблон:Sfn
A former partisan and Soviet officer named Hersch Gurewicz attested to the torture methods used by the Gestapo. He recalled a partisan was strapped to a table in a room and "a German turned the lever and the table moved apart in sections like a rack. The man screamed and his leg bones snapped through his skin. The lever turned again and his arms ripped in jagged tears. After the man fainted, his torturers shot him dead."Шаблон:Sfn He also claimed that he had been strapped down and a wire slowly forced up his nose, into his lung, causing him to go unconscious. Later he was tied to a horse, which was made to gallop full speed, and recalled being smashed into the ground repeatedly, before being knocked out by a solid object.Шаблон:Sfn
Occupation meant administration and policing, a duty assigned to the SS, the SD, and the Gestapo even before hostilities began, as was the case for Czechoslovakia.Шаблон:Sfn Correspondingly, Gestapo offices were established in a territory once occupied.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn Some locals aided the Gestapo, whether as professional police auxiliaries or in other duties. Nonetheless, operations performed either by German members of the Gestapo or auxiliaries from willing collaborators of other nationalities were inconsistent in both disposition and effectiveness. Varying degrees of pacification and police enforcement measures were necessary in each place, dependent on how cooperative or resistant the locals were to Nazi mandates and racial policies.Шаблон:Sfn
Throughout the Eastern territories, the Gestapo and other Nazi organisations co-opted the assistance of indigenous police units, nearly all of whom were uniformed and able to carry out drastic actions.Шаблон:Sfn Many of the auxiliary police personnel operating on behalf of German Order Police, the SD, and Gestapo were members of the Шаблон:Lang, which included staffing by Ukrainians, Belarusians, Russians, Estonians, Lithuanians, and Latvians.Шаблон:Sfn While in many countries the Nazis occupied in the East, the local domestic police forces supplemented German operations, noted Holocaust historian, Raul Hilberg, asserts that "those of Poland were least involved in anti-Jewish actions."Шаблон:Sfn Nonetheless, German authorities ordered the mobilisation of reserve Polish police forces, known as the Blue Police, which strengthened the Nazi police presence and carried out numerous "police" functions; in some cases, its functionaries even identified and rounded up Jews or performed other unsavory duties on behalf of their German masters.Шаблон:Sfn
In places like Denmark, there were some 550 uniformed Danes in Copenhagen working with the Gestapo, patrolling and terrorising the local population at the behest of their German overseers, many of whom were arrested after the war.Шаблон:Sfn Other Danish civilians, like in many places across Europe, acted as Gestapo informants but this should not be seen as wholehearted support for the Nazi program, as motives for cooperation varied.Шаблон:Sfn Whereas in France, the number of members in the Шаблон:Lang (French Gestapo) who worked on behalf of the Nazis was upwards of 30,000 to 32,000; they conducted operations nearly indistinguishable from their German equivalents.Шаблон:Sfn
Nuremberg trials
Between 14 November 1945 and 3 October 1946, the Allies established an International Military Tribunal (IMT) to try 22 major Nazi war criminals and six groups for crimes against peace, war crimes and crimes against humanity.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Nineteen of the 22 were convicted, and twelve—Martin Bormann (in absentia), Hans Frank, Wilhelm Frick, Hermann Göring, Alfred Jodl, Ernst Kaltenbrunner, Wilhelm Keitel, Joachim von Ribbentrop, Alfred Rosenberg, Fritz Sauckel, Arthur Seyss-Inquart, Julius Streicher—were given the death penalty. Three—Walther Funk, Rudolf Hess, Erich Raeder—received life terms; and the remaining four—Karl Dönitz, Konstantin von Neurath, Albert Speer, and Baldur von Schirach—received shorter prison sentences. Three others—Hans Fritzsche, Hjalmar Schacht, and Franz von Papen—were acquitted. At that time, the Gestapo was condemned as a criminal organisation, along with the SS.Шаблон:Sfn However, Gestapo leader Heinrich Müller was never tried, as he disappeared at the end of the war.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn
Leaders, organisers, investigators and accomplices participating in the formulation or execution of a common plan or conspiracy to commit the crimes specified were declared responsible for all acts performed by any persons in execution of such plan. The official positions of defendants as heads of state or holders of high government offices were not to free them from responsibility or mitigate their punishment; nor was that a defendant acted pursuant to an order of a superior to excuse him from responsibility, although it might be considered by the IMT in mitigation of punishment.Шаблон:Sfn
At the trial of any individual member of any group or organisation, the IMT was authorised to declare (in connection with any act of which the individual was convicted) that the group or organisation to which he belonged was a criminal organisation. When a group or organisation was thus declared criminal, the competent national authority of any signatory had the right to bring persons to trial for membership in that organisation, with the criminal nature of the group or organisation assumed proved.Шаблон:Sfn
The IMT subsequently convicted three of the groups: the Nazi leadership corps, the SS (including the SD) and the Gestapo. Gestapo members Hermann Göring, Ernst Kaltenbrunner and Arthur Seyss-Inquart were individually convicted. While three groups were acquitted of collective war crimes charges, this did not relieve individual members of those groups from conviction and punishment under the denazification programme. Members of the three convicted groups, however, were subject to apprehension by Britain, the United States, the Soviet Union, and France.Шаблон:Sfn These groups—the Nazi Party and government leadership, the German General staff and High Command (OKW); the Шаблон:Lang (SA); the Шаблон:Lang (SS), including the Шаблон:Lang (SD); and the Gestapo—had an aggregate membership exceeding two million, making a large number of their members liable to trial when the organisations were convicted.Шаблон:Sfn
Aftermath
In 1997, Cologne transformed the former regional Gestapo headquarters in Cologne—the EL-DE Haus—into a museum to document the Gestapo's actions.Шаблон:Sfn
After the war, U.S. Counterintelligence Corps employed the former Lyon Gestapo chief Klaus Barbie for his anti-communist efforts and also helped him escape to Bolivia.Шаблон:Sfn
Leadership
Шаблон:Officeholder table start Шаблон:Officeholder table Шаблон:Officeholder table Шаблон:Officeholder table Шаблон:Officeholder table end
Principal agents and officers
- Heinrich Baab (SiPo-SD Frankfurt)
- Klaus Barbie (SiPo-SD Lyon)
- Werner Best (SiPo-SD Copenhagen)
- Karl Bömelburg (Head of Gestapo, Southern France)
- Theodor Dannecker (SiPo-SD Paris)
- Rudolf Diels (Gestapo Chief 1933–1934)
- Adolf Eichmann (RSHA Berlin)
- Gerhard Flesch
- Hermann Göring (Founder of the Gestapo)
- Viktor Harnischfeger (Düsseldorf Gestapo Criminal Commissar)
- Reinhard Heydrich (SD, SiPo, Gestapo Chief 1934–1939, RSHA Chief 1939–1942)
- Heinrich Himmler (Шаблон:Lang)
- Ernst Kaltenbrunner (RSHA Chief 1943–1945)
- Herbert Kappler (SD Chief Rome)
- Werner Knab
- Helmut Knochen (Paris)
- Kurt Lischka (Paris)
- Ernst Misselwitz (Шаблон:Lang SiPo-SD Paris)
- Heinrich Müller (Gestapo Chief 1939–1945)
- Karl Oberg (Paris)
- Pierre Paoli (Head of Gestapo, Central France)
- Oswald Poche (Chief of Frankfurt Lindenstrasse station)
- Henry Rinnan (Norwegian agent)
- Karl Eberhard Schöngarth
- Max Wielen
Ranks and uniforms
The Gestapo was a secretive plainclothes agency and agents typically wore civilian suits. There were strict protocols protecting the identity of Gestapo field personnel. When asked for identification, an operative was required only to present his warrant disc and not a picture identification. This disc identified the operative as a member of the Gestapo without revealing personal information, except when ordered to do so by an authorised official.Шаблон:Sfn
Leitstellung (district office) staff did wear the grey SS service uniform, but with police-pattern shoulderboards, and SS rank insignia on the left collar patch. The right collar patch was black without the sig runes. The SD sleeve diamond (SD Шаблон:Lang) insignia was worn on the lower left sleeve, even by SiPo men who were not in the SD. Uniforms worn by Gestapo men assigned to the Шаблон:Lang in occupied territories, were at first indistinguishable from the Waffen-SS field uniform. Complaints from the Waffen-SS led to a change of rank insignia shoulder boards from those of the Waffen-SS to those of the Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn
The Gestapo maintained police detective ranks which were used for all officers, both those who were and who were not concurrently SS members.Шаблон:Efn
| Junior career | Senior career | Orpo equivalent | SS equivalent |
|---|---|---|---|
| Kriminalassistentanwärter | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | |
| Kriminalassistent | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | |
| Kriminaloberassistent | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | |
| Kriminalsekretär | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | ||
| Kriminalobersekretär | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| Шаблон:Lang | Kriminalkommissar with less than three years in that rank | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| Шаблон:Lang with less than three years in that rank | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | |
| Oberregierungs und Kriminalrat | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | |
| Regierungs und Kriminaldirektor Reichskriminaldirektor |
Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang |
- Junior career = Шаблон:Lang.
- Senior career = Шаблон:Lang
Sources:Шаблон:Sfn
- Rank insignia
| Шаблон:Lang | Rank insignia | Шаблон:Lang |
|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | |
| Шаблон:Lang with more than three years in the grade |
Шаблон:Lang | |
| Шаблон:Lang | ||
| Шаблон:Lang | ||
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | |
| Regierungs und Kriminaldirektor | Шаблон:Lang | |
| Reichskriminaldirektor | Шаблон:Lang |
- Source:Шаблон:Sfn
See also
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
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- Bauz, Ingrid; Sigrid Brüggemann; Roland Maier, eds. (2013). Die Geheime Staatspolizei in Württemberg und Hohenzollern. Stuttgart: Schmetterling. Шаблон:ISBN.
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- Krausnick, Helmut, et al. (1968). Anatomy of the SS State. New York; Walker and Company. Шаблон:ISBN
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External links
- Festung Furulund – magasinet – Dagbladet.no Шаблон:In lang
- Collection of testimonies concerning Gestapo activity in occupied Poland during WWII in "Chronicles of Terror" database
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