Английская Википедия:Ghaznavid campaigns in India

Шаблон:Multiple issues Шаблон:Infobox military conflict The Ghaznavid campaigns in India refer to a series of military expeditions lasting 54 years (973–1027) launched by the Ghaznavid Empire, a prominent empire of the 10th and 11th centuries, into the Indian subcontinent, led primarily by Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni (Шаблон:Reign), leaving a profound impact on the region's history and culture.

Beginning in the late 10th century, these incursions marked a significant chapter in the history of South Asia, with Ghaznavid forces penetrating deep into the Indian subcontinent, including the Punjab region and northern India. The primary objectives of these campaigns included the acquisition of wealth, the propagation of Islam, and the establishment of Ghaznavid rule in the region.

By the end of the tenth century, the Ghaznavid ruler Sabuktigin captured the region between Laghman and Peshawar from the Hindu Shahi ruler Jayapala. This laid the foundation for the Ghaznavids to establish their dominance over parts of present-day Afghanistan and northern India. The Ghaznavid campaigns in India serve as a crucial historical backdrop to the later Islamic empires that would shape the subcontinent's destiny.

Campaign timeline

This list details the military campaigns conducted by the Ghaznavids in India.


Name Of Conflict (Time)	Ghaznavid commander	Opponent	Outcome
Battle of Charkh (973)	Sabuktigin	Lawik dynasty and Hindu Shahis Abu Ali Lawik Шаблон:KIA	Ghazni Victory Abu Ali Lawik was killed in battle.Шаблон:Sfn
First Battle of Laghman (988)	Sabuktigin	Hindu Shahis Jayapala	Ghaznavid Victory Jayapala signs a treaty with Ghaznavids.
Second Battle of Laghman (991)	Sebuktigin	Hindu Shahis and Rajput confederacy Jayapala	Ghaznavid Victory Hindu Shahis and Rajputs forced to retreat.
Battle of Peshawar (1001)	Mahmud of Ghazni	Hindu Shahis JayapalaШаблон:POW	Ghaznavid Victory Jayapala taken as prisoner.
Capture of Bhatia (1004)	Mahmud of Ghazni	Kingdom of Bhatia Biji RaiШаблон:POW	Ghaznavid Victory Biji Rai was captured and immolated himself.
Battle of the Indus River (1006)	Mahmud of Ghazni	Hindu Shahis Anandapala	Ghaznavid Victory Anandapala retreats to Kashmir.
Capture of Multan (1006)	Mahmud of Ghazni	Lodi dynasty of Multan Fateh Daud Шаблон:Surrender	Ghaznavid Victory Fateh Daud surrenders.Шаблон:Sfn
Battle of Multan (1007)	Mahmud of Ghazni	Hindu Shahis SukhapalaШаблон:POW	Ghaznavid Victory Sukhapala was captured as prisoner.
Battle of Chach (1009)	Mahmud of Ghazni	Hindu Shahis Anandapala	Ghaznavid Victory Punjab annexed to Ghaznavid empire.
Capture of Narayanpur (Rajput state) (1009)	Mahmud of Ghazni	Rajputs of Narayana and Hindu Shahis King of Narayana Anandapala	Ghaznavid Victory Narayanpur annexed to Ghaznavid empire.^[1]
Recapture of Multan (1010)	Mahmud of Ghazni	Lodi dynasty of Multan Fateh DaudШаблон:POW	Ghaznavid Victory Fateh Daud taken as prisoner. Rebellion suppressed.^[1]
Battle of Dera (1012)	Mahmud of Ghazni	Chief of Dera Rama	Ghaznavid Victory Mahmud proceeds towards Thanesar.
Plunder of Thanesar (1012)	Mahmud of Ghazni	Tomara dynasty (offered no resistance)	Ghaznavid Victory Ghaznavids plunders Thanesar, obtains booty and returns to Ghazni. 200,000 captives taken as prisoner.^[2]^[3]
Siege of Nandana (1016)	Mahmud of Ghazni	Hindu Shahis Trilochanapala	Ghaznavid Victory Fort of Nandana captured by Ghaznavids Trilochanapala retreat.Шаблон:Sfn
First Kashmir invasion (1016)	Mahmud of Ghazni	Hindu Shahis and Lohara dynasty Trilochanapala TunghШаблон:KIA	Ghaznavid Victory Ghaznavids plunder Kashmir valley Trilochanapala retreat.
Siege of Lohkot (1016)	Mahmud of Ghazni	Lohara dynasty (unknown)	Stalemate Mahmud withdraws due to heavy snowfall.
Siege of Bulandshahr (1018)	Mahmud of Ghazni	Kingdom of Bulandshahr King Hardat	Ghaznavid Victory King Hardat fled from the fort.
Siege of Mahaban (1018)	Mahmud of Ghazni	Kingdom of Mahaban Kulchand	Ghaznavid Victory Kulchand commits suicide.Шаблон:Sfn
Plunder of Mathura (1018)	Mahmud of Ghazni	Tomara dynasty (offers no resistance)	Ghaznavid Victory Ghaznavids plunder Mathura. The 50,000 Hindus were killed by drowning or by using swords, the massacre was accompanied by the destruction of 1,000 temples in the district.^[4]^[5]
Ghaznavid invasion of Kannauj (1018)	Mahmud of Ghazni	Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty(Rajputs) RajyapalaШаблон:Surrender	Ghaznavid Victory Rajyapala surrenders Gurjara Pratihara accepts nominal suzerainty of Ghaznavids.^[6]
Capture of Munjhawan (1018)	Mahmud of Ghazni	Brahmins	Ghaznavid Victory Munjhawan captured by Ghaznavids.
Capture of Asi Fort (1018)	Mahmud of Ghazni	Candrapala bhur	Ghaznavid Victory Asi fort successfully captured by Ghazni.^[7] Candrapala fled to hills.
Capture of Sirsawa (1019)	Mahmud of Ghazni	Hindu Chief of Sirsawa Chand RaiШаблон:POW	Ghaznavid Victory Sirsawa plundered Chand Rai was captured.Шаблон:Sfn
Battle of the Rahib River (1021)	Mahmud of Ghazni	Hindu Shahis and Rajput confederacy TrilochanapalaШаблон:KIA Vidyadhara	Ghaznavid Victory Hindu Shahis and Rajputs retreats.^[8] Trilochandapala was killed in the battle.^[9]
Siege of Gwalior (1021)	Mahmud of Ghazni	Kachchhapaghata dynasty KirthirajaШаблон:Surrender	Ghaznavid Victory Kirthiraja surrenders Kachchhapaghata accepts the nominal suzerainty of Ghaznavids.Шаблон:Sfn
Siege of Kalinjar (1021)	Mahmud of Ghazni	Chandelas(Rajputs) Vidhyadara	Stalemate. Peace treaty.
Sack of Somnath (1026)	Mahmud of Ghazni	Rajput confederacy	Ghaznavid Victory Somanath temple plundered. 50,000 Rajputs were killed in the battle.Шаблон:Sfn
Battle of the Indus River (1027)	Mahmud of Ghazni	Jats	Ghaznavid VictoryШаблон:Sfn

Under Sabuktigin

Sabuktigin was one of the slaves of Alptigin, the Governor of Ghazni.^[10] Alptigin was succeeded by his son Abu Ishaq and his slave, Bilgetigin, respectively. Following Bilgetigin's death in 972, another of Alptigin's slaves, named Boritigin, ascended to the throne.Шаблон:Sfn

As a Ghazni subordinate

Alptigin

Sabuktigin gold Dinar

Battle of Charkh (973)

The first military conflict between Sabuktigin and the Indian kingdoms occurred in 973, when Abu Ali Lawik, the king of the Lawik dynasty, marched to invade Ghazni. Jayapala, the Hindu Shahi ruler, sent his son to support Lawik in this invasion. The battle took place near Charkh, in modern-day Afghanistan. Sabuktigin's forces defeated the combined armies of Lawik and the Hindu Shahis, resulting in the death and capture of many of their soldiers. Abu Ali Lawik himself was killed in the battle.Шаблон:Sfn^[11]

As a Ghaznavid ruler

Sabuktigin ascended to the throne of Ghazni in 977, and embarked on a series of wars with Indian kingdoms in the late 10th century. His primary objective was to expand the influence of the Ghaznavid Empire in the Indian subcontinent. Sabuktigin's most remarkable military achievement was the conquest of the Punjab region. These conflicts with Indian kingdoms solidified the Ghaznavids as a formidable power in India and laid the groundwork for the more renowned invasions led by Mahmud of Ghazni in the subsequent century.

Initially, Sabuktigin faced opposition from Toghan and subsequently marched against him, leading to the capture of Kandahar and its surrounding areas. Sabuktigin also conducted raids in the territories belonging to Jayapala, which provoked Jayapala to launch an attack on Ghazni.

First Battle of Laghman

Шаблон:Main

The first Battle of Laghman took place in 988 near present-day Laghman, Afghanistan, between Jayapala and Sabuktigin. Sabuktigin's Ghaznavid forces emerged victorious over Jayapala's Hindu Shahi forces. As a result, Jayapala, the Hindu Shahi ruler, was compelled to pay a substantial tribute to Sabuktigin and cede both territories and a few forts

Present-day Laghman

Present day Laghman

Second Battle of Laghman

Шаблон:See also To avenge the defeat at Laghman, Jayapala orchestrated the formation of a confederacy comprising Hindu chiefs from the Tomara dynasty, Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty, Chahamanas, and Chandelas. This alliance was aimed at preparing for a pivotal battle. Jayapala amassed a substantial force, which included 100,000 cavalry and an immense contingent of foot soldiers. In 991 AD, Both forces met at Laghman. Seeing the disproportion of the manpower, Sabuktigin divided his troops into squadrons of 500 men each, and directed them to attack the enemy on one particular point. Ghaznavid forces again defeated the combined Hindu Shahi and Rajput forces.^[12]^[13]

Sabuktigin died in 997. He had increased Alptigin's domains to cover the area south of the Hindu Kush in Afghanistan and east to the Indus River in what is today Pakistan. His son Mahmud of Ghazni succeeded him.

Under Mahmud of Ghazni

Mahmud of Ghazni succeeded Sabuktigin in 997. Mahmud of Ghazni's invasion of India in the 11th century was a pivotal moment in the subcontinent's history. Mahmud, a powerful Turkic ruler, launched a series of raids into India between 1000 and 1027. His primary goal was to plunder the rich temples of northern India, most notably the famous Somnath Temple. These invasions left a lasting impact on the Indian subcontinent, both culturally and politically. While Mahmud's conquests were driven by a desire for wealth and power, they also led to the spread of Persian culture and the introduction of Islam in the region. His expeditions marked the beginning of a series of foreign invasions into India, ultimately shaping the course of its history for centuries to come.Шаблон:Sfn

Against the western front

Disaster of Jayapala Army against Mahmud of Ghazni, due to a snowstorm^[14]

In 1001, the Ghaznavid forces, led by Mahmud of Ghazni, achieved victory over the Hindu Shahi forces, commanded by Jayapala, near Peshawar. Consequently, Mahmud incorporated Peshawar and Punjab into his empire. Jayapala, the Hindu Shahi ruler, was taken prisoner and, in the face of the humiliating defeat, immolated himself.Шаблон:Sfn

In 1004 CE, Mahmud invaded the Kingdom of Bhatia/Bhera and defeated its ruler, Biji Rai (also known as Baji Rao).Шаблон:Sfn The battle raged on for three days, resulting in heavy casualties for Biji Rai's forces. Ultimately, Biji Rai was compelled to retreat into the forest. The city came under siege and was eventually conquered by Sultan Mahmud's army. Biji Rai was captured by the Ghaznavids but chose to take his own life. Mahmud amassed significant wealth from this battle, including 120 elephants. Mahmud returned to Ghazni after this campaign.Шаблон:Sfn

In 1006, Mahmud led an expedition against Fateh Daud, the king of the Lodi dynasty of Multan. Daud had formed an alliance with Anandapala, the son of Jayapala, who had taken the throne after his father's death.^[15] Mahmud initially requested Anandapala to allow his army to pass through his territory, but Anandapala, being in alliance with Daud, refused. Consequently, Mahmud marched against Anandapala and defeated his forces near the Indus River. Anandapala was compelled to retreat to the mountains of Kashmir. Mahmud's forces plundered Anandapala's territories and took many soldiers as prisoners.^[15]

Mahmud continued his march towards Multan and, upon reaching the city, Fateh Daud surrendered it to him and agreed to pay an annual tribute. On his way back to Ghazni, Mahmud appointed a Hindu convert named Nawassa Shah (also known as Sukhapala) to oversee the Indian territories. Sukhapala happened to be the grandson of Jayapala.Шаблон:Sfn

In Mahmud's absence, Sukhapala reverted to Hinduism and revolted against him. Mahmud, upon hearing this, marched from Ghazni to Multan and defeated Sukhapala. Sukhapala retreated to the Salt Ranges but was eventually captured by the Sultan's forces and taken as a prisoner. Mahmud compelled Sukhapala to pay 400,000 dirhams and sentenced him to life imprisonment.^[16]^[17]

In 1008, Mahmud launched a campaign against the Hindu Shahis and defeated Anandapala in the Battle of Chach. This conflict likely arose from Anandapala's support of Daud during Mahmud's invasion of Multan. The Hindu Shahi troops retreated as far as the Kangra Valley, where they sought refuge.^[18]

Mahmud of Ghazni on an elephant

In 1009, Mahmud embarked on an expedition against the King of Narayana, a Rajput vassal state of Anandapala. Anandapala intervened to aid his vassal but was ultimately defeated by Mahmud's Ghaznavid forces. This conquest allowed Mahmud to penetrate deep into the heartland of India.^[1]

In 1010, Daud staged another revolt against Mahmud. Mahmud responded by marching towards Multan, where he not only quelled the rebellion but also inflicted heavy casualties among heretics and took Daud as a prisoner. This action reestablished Mahmud's authority over Multan.^[1]

After experiencing a series of consecutive defeats, Anandapala opted to initiate a peace treaty with Mahmud. The terms of the agreement stipulated that he would annually pay a substantial tribute equivalent to the profits generated from his territories and the looting of his cities. Additionally, he committed to sending 50 elephants and 2000 well-trained armed personnel for military support. In exchange, the Sultan pledged not to launch any invasions into Anandapala's kingdom.^[19]

Other campaigns

Шаблон:See also Despite his alliance with Anandapala, Mahmud of Ghazni continued his military campaigns in India. In 1012 CE, Mahmud marched from Ghazni to Thanesar with the intent to conquer and plunder the city. According to their treaty, Anandapala allowed Mahmud to pass through his territory but requested that the sacred city not be destroyed. Nevertheless, Mahmud continued his march toward Thanesar and encountered resistance from Rama, the chief of Dera, whom Mahmud defeated, allowing him to proceed further.

In 1012, Thanesar was under the rule of the Tomara dynasty. The Tomara king sent appeals for assistance to other neighboring kings, but Mahmud successfully captured the city, plundered it, and then returned to Ghazni.^[3]

Thanesar

Anandapala's death is not recorded in any chronicle; however, it can be ascertained to be c. late 1010 - early 1011. His son Trilochanapala succeeded him.

After the demise of Anandapala, Mahmud of Ghazni resumed his campaigns against the Hindu Shahis. In 1014 CE, he launched an expedition against Trilochanapala, who had settled in Nandana within the Salt Range. Trilochanapala attempted to defend the fort, but his forces were defeated by the Ghaznavid army, leading to the capture of the fort of Nandana. Trilochanapala fled to Kashmir to escape capture.Шаблон:Sfn

Mahmud pursued Trilochanapala into the Kashmir hills, pillaging villages along his path as he advanced towards Kashmir. This marked Mahmud's first invasion of Kashmir in 1015 AD. Seeking assistance, Trilochanapala turned to Sangramaraja, the reigning Lohara king of Kashmir, who promptly dispatched a substantial force led by his commander, Tungh, to support Trilochanapala. Initially, Tungh's forces won a skirmish against a small detachment sent by Mahmud. However, their overconfidence led them to engage in an open battle. Despite being outnumbered, Mahmud's Ghaznavid forces managed to defeat the Kashmiri forces. Trilochanapala retreated from the battlefield, and Mahmud plundered the frontier of the Kashmir valley before returning to Ghazni.

In 1016, Mahmud launched another invasion of Kashmir, advancing until he reached the pass where the fort of Lohkot is located. Mahmud initiated a siege of the fort, but his efforts were interrupted by the onset of winter, accompanied by heavy snowfall. Consequently, Mahmud had to withdraw from the operation due to the adverse weather conditions.

In 1018 AD, Mahmud led an expedition against the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty. Sultan Mahmud marched from Ghazni to Kannauj with a formidable army. Along his journey, he reached Bulandshahr, where King Hardat of Bulandshahr fled, leaving a garrison to defend the fort. The Ghaznavid forces defeated this garrison, and peace was secured with a payment of 1,000,000 dirhams and 30 elephants. Continuing his advance, Mahmud reached Mahaban. The king of Mahaban, named Kulchand, retreated to a dense forest and prepared for a battle. However, the forces of Mahaban were defeated by the Ghaznavids and many of them perished, some drowning in the river Yamuna. In a tragic turn of events, Kulchand took the life of his wife and then his own^[20]Шаблон:Sfn He subsequently launched an attack on Mathura. Although it was under the control of the Tomara dynasty, he did not encounter significant opposition. Mahmud plundered and devastated Mathura, leaving it in ruins. From Mathura, he advanced towards Kannauj. Upon his approach, Rajyapala, the Gurjar King, retreated to a location known as Bari. Kannauj fell easily to the Ghaznavids due to the lack of resistance. Eventually, Rajyapala surrendered to the Sultan.^[6] Mahmud then took control of Munjhawan, a Brahmin stronghold. The garrison put up a spirited defense against the invasion for 25 days but was ultimately defeated. Tragically, many of the defenders, along with their wives and children, chose to immolate themselves in the fire, while others leaped from the fort onto the battlefield, preferring death over dishonor. In the end, it was discovered that no one had survived within the fort.

Map of the Ghaznavids

Map of the Ghaznavid Empire

Mahmud then advanced towards Asi, but its ruler Chandrapal Bhur ran away from his territory. By Sultan's order, the fort was plundered and the inhabitants were put to death.

In January 1019, Mahmud marched towards Sirsawa. Chand Rai, the Hindu chief of that region, prepared for battle. However, before the Sultan's arrival, Bhimpala, the son of Trilochanapala, advised him not to engage in a battle with Mahmud. Consequently, he fled from his fort, sought refuge on a hill, and concealed himself in a dense forest. Mahmud reached Sirsawa, plundered the fort, and then led his army into the forest, capturing Chand Rai.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Blockquote

By the time, Rajyapala, the Gurjar ruler who surrendered to Mahmud was killed by the Chandela ruler Vidhyadara. In 1021, Mahmud marched from Ghazni with the intention of punishing Vidhyadara for his actions. However, he faced opposition from Trilochanapala on the banks of the Rahib River (either Yamuna or Ravi). Trilochanapala's army was defeated by the Ghaznavid forces, compelling him to retreat from the battlefield, resulting in the loss of many of his soldiers. Trilochanapala himself passed away shortly after the battle, and his son Bhimpala succeeded him.^[8]^[21]

Mahmud attacked the territories of Vidhyadara. He attacked the Gwalior fort in 1021 and forced its Kachchhapaghata ruler Kirthiraja to surrender. Kirthiraja accepted the nominal suzerainity of the Sultan and became a vassal of Ghaznavids. Kirthiraja offered thirty five war elephants to Mahmud.Шаблон:Sfn

Mahmud then directed his attention towards Kalinjar, where Vidhyadara had sought refuge after the Battle of the Rahib. The Sultan laid siege to the fort of Kalinjar, and after a fierce conflict, both parties opted for a peace treaty. Vidhyadara composed a poem praising Mahmud of Ghazni, and in a gesture of goodwill, Mahmud returned 15 forts to Vidhyadara as a part of the agreement.Шаблон:Sfn

Mahmud of Ghazni receiving Indian elephants

Sack of Somnath in Gujarat

Шаблон:Main In 1026, Mahmud of Ghazni led an army of 80,000 men on a campaign to plunder the Somanath temple. Rajput forces opposed his army at Somanath, but the Sultan's forces emerged victorious, with a devastating toll of 50,000 casualties among the defending army. The Ghaznavids looted the Somanath temple and destroyed its idols. This event earned Mahmud the title of 'The Idol Breaker' due to his actions during this campaign.Шаблон:Sfn

Ruins of Somnath temple

Mahmud defeated the Jatts near the Indus River in 1027.Шаблон:Sfn

References

Sources

[c-1] 1,0 ^1,1 ^1,2 ^1,3 Шаблон:Cite book

[2] Шаблон:Cite book

[v-3] 3,0 ^3,1 Шаблон:Cite book

[4] Шаблон:Cite book

[5] Шаблон:Cite book

[x-6] 6,0 ^6,1 Шаблон:Cite book

[7] Шаблон:Cite book

[g-8] 8,0 ^8,1 Шаблон:Cite book

[9] Шаблон:Cite book

[10] Шаблон:Cite book

[11] Шаблон:Cite book

[12] Шаблон:Cite book

[13] Шаблон:Cite book

[14] Шаблон:Cite book

[:0-15] 15,0 ^15,1 Шаблон:Cite book

[16] Шаблон:Cite book

[17] Шаблон:Cite book

[18] Шаблон:Cite book

[19] Шаблон:Cite book

[20] Шаблон:Cite book

[21] Шаблон:Cite book

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

Партнерские ресурсы
Криптовалюты	Обмен криптовалют - www.bestchange.ru Криптовалютная биржа CoinEx Криптовалютная биржа Binance HIVE OS - операционная система для майнинга e4pool - Мультивалютный пул для майнинга.
Магазины	AliExpress — глобальная виртуальная (в Интернете) торговая площадка, предоставляющая возможность покупать товары производителей из КНР; computeruniverse.net - Интернет-магазин компьютеров(Промо код 5 Евро на первую покупку:FWWC3ZKQ);
Хостинг	DigitalOcean - американский провайдер облачных инфраструктур, с главным офисом в Нью-Йорке и с центрами обработки данных по всему миру;
Разное	Викиум - Онлайн-тренажер для мозга Like Центр - Центр поддержки и развития предпринимательства. Gamersbay - лучший магазин по бустингу для World of Warcraft. Ноотропы OmniMind N°1 - Усиливает мозговую активность. Повышает мотивацию. Улучшает память. Санкт-Петербургская школа телевидения - это федеральная сеть образовательных центров, которая имеет филиалы в 37 городах России. Lingualeo.com — интерактивный онлайн-сервис для изучения и практики английского языка в увлекательной игровой форме. Junyschool (Джунискул) – международная школа программирования и дизайна для детей и подростков от 5 до 17 лет, где ученики осваивают компьютерную грамотность, развивают алгоритмическое и креативное мышление, изучают основы программирования и компьютерной графики, создают собственные проекты: игры, сайты, программы, приложения, анимации, 3D-модели, монтируют видео. Умназия - Интерактивные онлайн-курсы и тренажеры для развития мышления детей 6-13 лет SkillBox - это один из лидеров российского рынка онлайн-образования. Среди партнеров Skillbox ведущий разработчик сервисного дизайна AIC, медиа-компания Yoola, первое и самое крупное русскоязычное аналитическое агентство Tagline, онлайн-школа дизайна и иллюстрации Bang! Bang! Education, оператор PR-рынка PACO, студия рисования Draw&Go, агентство performance-маркетинга Ingate, scrum-студия Sibirix, имидж-лаборатория Персона. «Нетология» — это университет по подготовке и дополнительному обучению специалистов в области интернет-маркетинга, управления проектами и продуктами, дизайна, Data Science и разработки. В рамках Нетологии студенты получают ценные теоретические знания от лучших экспертов Рунета, выполняют практические задания на отработку полученных навыков, общаются с экспертами и единомышленниками. Познакомиться со всеми продуктами подробнее можно на сайте https://netology.ru, линейка курсов и профессий постоянно обновляется. StudyBay Brazil – это онлайн биржа для португалоговорящих студентов и авторов! Студент получает уникальную работу любого уровня сложности и больше свободного времени, в то время как у автора появляется дополнительный заработок и бесценный опыт. Автор24 — самая большая в России площадка по написанию учебных работ: контрольные и курсовые работы, дипломы, рефераты, решение задач, отчеты по практике, а так же любой другой вид работы. Сервис сотрудничает с более 70 000 авторов. Более 1 000 000 работ уже выполнено. StudyBay – это онлайн биржа для англоязычных студентов и авторов! Студент получает уникальную работу любого уровня сложности и больше свободного времени, в то время как у автора появляется дополнительный заработок и бесценный опыт.