Английская Википедия:Ghaznavids
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Pp-semi-indef Шаблон:Use British English Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Infobox country The Ghaznavid dynasty (Шаблон:Lang-fa Ġaznaviyān) or the Ghaznavid Empire was a Persianate Muslim dynasty and empire of Turkic mamluk origin,Шаблон:Efn ruling at its greatest extent, large parts of Persia, Khorasan, and the northwest Indian subcontinent from 977 to 1186. The dynasty was founded by Sabuktigin upon his succession to the rule of Ghazna after the death of his father-in-law, Alp Tigin, who was an ex-general of the Samanid Empire from Balkh, north of the Hindu Kush in Greater Khorasan.
Sabuktigin's son, Mahmud of Ghazni, expanded the Ghaznavid Empire to the Amu Darya, the Indus River and the Indian Ocean in the east and to Rey and Hamadan in the west. Under the reign of Mas'ud I, the Ghaznavid dynasty began losing control over its western territories to the Seljuk Empire after the Battle of Dandanaqan in 1040, resulting in a restriction of its holdings to modern-day Afghanistan, Pakistan and Northern India.
In 1151, Sultan Bahram Shah lost Ghazni to the Ghurid sultan Ala al-Din Husayn. The Ghaznavids retook Ghazni, but lost the city to the Ghuzz Turks who in turn lost it to Muhammad of Ghor. In response, the Ghaznavids fled to Lahore, their regional capital. In 1186, Lahore was conquered by the Ghurid sultan, Muhammad of Ghor, with its Ghaznavid ruler, Khusrau Malik, imprisoned and later executed.
Rise to power
Two military families arose from the Turkic slave-guards of the Samanid Empire, the Simjurids and Ghaznavids, who ultimately proved disastrous to the Samanids. The Simjurids received an appanage in the Kohistan region of eastern Khorasan. The Samanid generals Alp Tigin and Abu al-Hasan Simjuri competed for the governorship of Khorasan and control of the Samanid Empire by placing on the throne emirs they could dominate after the death of Abd al-Malik I in 961. His death created a succession crisis between his brothers.
A court party instigated by men of the scribal class – civilian ministers rather than Turkic generals – rejected the candidacy of Alp Tigin for the Samanid throne. Mansur I was installed instead, and Alp Tigin prudently retired to south of the Hindu Kush, where he captured Ghazna and became the ruler of the city as a Samanid authority.Шаблон:Sfn The Simjurids enjoyed control of Khorasan south of the Amu Darya but were hard-pressed by a third great Iranian dynasty, the Buyid dynasty, and were unable to survive the collapse of the Samanids and the subsequent rise of the Ghaznavids.
The struggles of the Turkic slave generals for mastery of the throne with the help of shifting allegiance from the court's ministerial leaders both demonstrated and accelerated the Samanid decline. Samanid weakness attracted into Transoxiana the Karluks, a Turkic people who had recently converted to Islam. They occupied Bukhara in 992, establishing in Transoxania the Kara-Khanid Khanate.Шаблон:Citation needed
Alp Tigin's died in 963, and after two ghulam governors and three years, his slave Sabuktigin became the governor of Ghazna.
Domination
Sabuktigin
Sabuktigin lived as a mamluk, Turkic slave-soldier,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:EfnШаблон:Sfn during his youth and later married the daughter of his master Alptigin,Шаблон:Sfn who fled to Ghazna following a failed coup attempt, and conquered the city from the local Lawik rulers in 962.Шаблон:Sfn After Alptigin death, his son Abu Ishaq Ibrahim governed Ghazna for three years.Шаблон:Sfn His death was followed by the reign of a former ghulam of Alptigin, Bilgetigin. Bilgetigin's rule was so harsh the populace invited Abu Bakr Lawik back.Шаблон:Sfn It was through Sabuktigin's military ability that Lawik was removed, Bilgetigin was exiled, and Sabuktigin gained the governorship.Шаблон:Sfn
Once established as governor of Ghazna, Sabuktigin was asked to intervene in Khurasan, at the insistence of the Samanid emir, and after a victorious campaign received the governorships of Balkh, Tukharistan, Bamiyan, Ghur and Gharchistan.Шаблон:Sfn Sabuktigin inherited a governorship in turmoil.Шаблон:Sfn In Zabulistan, the typical military fief system(mustaghall) were being changed into permanent ownership(tamlik) which resulted in the Turkic soldiery unwilling to take up arms.Шаблон:Sfn Sabuktigin reformed the system making them all a mustaghall-type fief.Шаблон:Sfn In 976, he ended the conflict between two Turkic ghulams at Bust and restored the original ruler.Шаблон:Sfn Later that same year, Sabuktigin campaigned against Qusdar, catching the ruler(possibly Mu'tazz b. Ahmad) off guard and obtaining an annual tribute from him.Шаблон:Sfn
After the death of Sabuktigin, his son by Alptigin's daughter, Ismail, was given Ghazna.Шаблон:EfnШаблон:Sfn Another son, Abu'l-Muzaffar Nasr, was given the governorship of Bust, while in Khorasan, the eldest son Mahmud, was given command of the army.Шаблон:Sfn Sabuktigin's intent was to ensure governorships for his family, despite the decaying influence of the Samanid Empire, and did not consider his dynasty as independent.Шаблон:Sfn Ismail, upon gaining his inheritance, quickly traveled to Bust and did homage to Emir Abu'l-Harith Mansur b. Nuh.Шаблон:Sfn Mahmud, who had been left out of any significant inheritance, proposed a division of power, to which Ismail refused.Шаблон:Sfn Mahmud marched on Ghazna and subsequently Ismail was defeated and captured in 998 at the Battle of Ghazni.Шаблон:Sfn
Mahmud, son of Sabuktigin
In 998, Mahmud, son of Sebuktigin, succeeded to the governorship, and Ghazni and the Ghaznavid dynasty became perpetually associated with him. He emphasized his loyalty in a letter to the caliph, saying that the Samanids had only been replaced because of their treason.Шаблон:Sfn Mahmud received the governorship of Khurasan and titles of Yamin al-Dawla and Amin al-Milla.Шаблон:Sfn As a representative of caliphal authory, he championed Sunni Islam by campaigning against the Ismaili and Shi'ite Buyids.Шаблон:Sfn He completed the conquest of the Samanid and Shahi territories, including the Ismaili Kingdom of Multan, Sindh, as well as some Buwayhid territory.
By all accounts, the rule of Mahmud was the golden age and height of the Ghaznavid Empire. Mahmud carried out seventeen expeditions through northern India to establish his control and set up tributary states, and his raids also resulted in the looting of a great deal of plunder. He established his authority from the borders of Ray to Samarkand, from the Caspian Sea to the Yamuna.
During Mahmud's reign (997–1030), the Ghaznavids settled 4,000 Turkmen families near Farana in Khorasan. By 1027, due to the Turkmen raiding neighbouring settlements, the governor of Tus, Abu l'Alarith Arslan Jadhib, led military strikes against them. The Turkmen were defeated and scattered to neighbouring lands.Шаблон:Sfn Still, as late as 1033, Ghaznavid governor Tash Farrash executed fifty Turkmen chiefs for raids into Khorasan.Шаблон:Sfn
Indian conquests
Mahmud of Ghazni led incursions deep into India, as far as Mathura, Kannauj and Somnath. In 1001, he defeated the Hindu Shahi in the Battle of Peshawar. In 1004-5, he invaded the Principality of Bhatiya and in 1006 the neighbouring Emirate of Multan.[4] In 1008-9, he again vanquished the Hindu Shahis at the Battle of Chach, and established Governors in the conquered areas.[4] In India, the Ghaznavids were called Turushkas ("Turks") or Hammiras (from the Arabic Amir "Commander").Шаблон:Sfn
In 1018, he laid waste the city of Mathura, which was "ruthlessly sacked, ravaged, desecrated and destroyed".[5][6] According to Muhammad Qasim Hindu Shah, writing an "History of Hindustan" in the 16th-17th century, the city of Mathura was the richest in India. When it was attacked by Mahmud of Ghazni, "all the idols" were burnt and destroyed during a period of twenty days, gold and silver was smelted for booty, and the city was burnt down.[7] In 1018 Mahmud also captured Kanauj, the capital of the Gurjara-Pratiharas, and then confronted the Chandelas, from whom he obtained the payment of tribute.[8] In 1026, he raided and plundered the Somnath temple, taking away a booty of 20 million dinars.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
The wealth brought back from Mahmud's Indian expeditions to Ghazni was enormous, and contemporary historians (e.g., Abolfazl Beyhaghi, Ferdowsi) give glowing descriptions of the magnificence of the capital and of the conqueror's munificent support of literature.[9] Mahmud died in April 1030 and had chosen his son, Mohammed, as his successor.Шаблон:Sfn
Decline
Twin sons of Mahmud
Mahmud left the empire to his son Mohammed, who was mild, affectionate and soft. His brother, Mas'ud, asked for three provinces that he had won by his sword, but his brother did not consent. Mas'ud had to fight his brother, and he became king, blinding and imprisoning Mohammed as punishment. Mas'ud was unable to preserve the empire and following a disastrous defeat at the Battle of Dandanaqan in 1040, he lost all the Ghaznavid lands in Persia and Central Asia to the Seljuks, plunging the realm into a "time of troubles".Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn His last act was to collect all his treasures from his forts in hope of assembling an army and ruling from India, but his own forces plundered the wealth and he proclaimed his blind brother as king again. The two brothers now exchanged positions: Mohammed was elevated from prison to the throne, while Mas'ud was consigned to a dungeon after a reign of ten years and was assassinated in 1040. Mas'ud's son, Madood, was governor of Balkh, and in 1040, after hearing of his father's death, he came to Ghazni to claim his kingdom. He fought with the sons of the blind Mohammed and was victorious. However, the empire soon disintegrated and most kings did not submit to Madood. In a span of nine years, four more kings claimed the throne of Ghazni.
Ibrahim
In 1058, Mas'ud's son Ibrahim, a great calligrapher who wrote the Koran with his own pen, became king. Ibrahim re-established a truncated empire on a firmer basis by arriving at a peace agreement with the Seljuks and a restoration of cultural and political linkages.Шаблон:Sfn Under Ibrahim and his successors the empire enjoyed a period of sustained tranquility. Shorn of its western land, it was increasingly sustained by riches accrued from raids across Northern India, where it faced stiff resistance from Indian rulers such as the Paramara of Malwa and the Gahadvala of Kannauj.Шаблон:Sfn He ruled until 1098.
Mas'ud III
Mas'ud III became king for sixteen years, with no major event in his lifetime. Mas'ud built the Palace of Sultan Mas'ud III and one of the Ghazni Minarets. Signs of weakness in the state became apparent when he died in 1115, with internal strife between his sons ending with the ascension of Sultan Bahram Shah as a Seljuk vassal.Шаблон:Sfn Bahram Shah defeated his brother Arslan for the throne at the Battle of Ghazni in 1117.
Sultan Bahram Shah
Sultan Bahram Shah was the last Ghaznavid King, ruling Ghazni, the first and main Ghaznavid capital, for thirty-five years. In 1148 he was defeated in Ghazni by Sayf al-Din Suri, but he recaptured the capital the next year. Ala al-Din Husayn, a Ghorid King, conquered the city in 1151, in revenge for his brother Kutubbuddin's death, who was son-in-law of the king but was publicly punished and killed for a minor offence. Ala al-Din Husayn then razed the city, burning it for 7 days, after which he became known as "Jahānsuz" (World Burner). Ghazni was restored to the Ghaznavids by the intervention of the Seljuks, who came to the aid of Bahram.Шаблон:Sfn Ghaznavid struggles with the Ghurids continued in subsequent years as they nibbled away at Ghaznavid territory, and Ghazni and Zabulistan were lost to a group of Oghuz Turks before being captured by the Ghurids.Шаблон:Sfn Ghazni fell to the Ghurids around 1170.[10][11]
Шаблон:Main Шаблон:South Asia in 1175 After the fall of Ghazni in 1163, the Ghaznavids established themselves in Lahore, their regional capital for Indian territories since its conquest by Mahmud of Ghazni, which became the new capital of the Late Ghaznavids.[10] Ghaznavid power in northwestern India continued until the Ghurid conquest of Lahore by Muhammad of Ghor in 1186, deposing the last Ghaznavid ruler Khusrau Malik.Шаблон:Sfn Both Khusrau Malik and his son were imprisoned and summarily executed in Firuzkuh in 1191, extinguishing the Ghaznavid lineage.Шаблон:Sfn
Military and tactics
The core of the Ghaznavid army was primarily made up of Turks,Шаблон:Sfn as well as thousands of native Afghans who were trained and assembled from the area south of the Hindu Kush in what is now Afghanistan.Шаблон:Sfn During the rule of Sultan Mahmud, a new, larger military training center was established in Bost (now Lashkar Gah). This area was known for blacksmiths where war weapons were made. After capturing and conquering the Punjab region, the Ghaznavids began to employ Hindus in their army.Шаблон:Sfn
Like the other dynasties that rose out of the remains of the Abbasid Caliphate, the Ghaznavid administrative traditions and military practice came from the Abbasids. The Arabian horses, at least in the earliest campaign, were still substantial in Ghaznavid military incursions, especially in dashing raids deep into hostile territory. There is a record of '6000 Arab horse' being sent against king Anandapala in 1008, and evidence of this Arabian cavalry persists until 1118 under the Ghaznavid governor in Lahore.Шаблон:Sfn
Due to their access to the Indus-Ganges plains, the Ghaznavids, during the 11th and 12th centuries, developed the first Muslim army to use war elephants in battle.[13] The elephants were protected by armour plating on their fronts. The use of these elephants was a foreign weapon in other regions that the Ghaznavids fought in, particularly in Central Asia.Шаблон:Sfn
State and culture
Although the dynasty was of Central Asian Turkic origin, it was thoroughly Persianised in terms of language, culture, literature and habitsШаблон:EfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:EfnШаблон:Sfn and has been regarded as a "Persian dynasty".Шаблон:Efn
According to Clifford Edmund Bosworth:Шаблон:Blockquote
Persian literary culture enjoyed a renaissance under the Ghaznavids during the 11th century.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The Ghaznavid court was so renowned for its support of Persian literature that the poet Farrukhi traveled from his home province to work for them.Шаблон:Sfn The poet Unsuri's short collection of poetry was dedicated to Sultan Mahmud and his brothers Nasr and Yaqub.Шаблон:Sfn Another poet of the Ghaznavid court, Manuchehri, wrote numerous poems about the merits of drinking wine.Шаблон:Sfn
Sultan Mahmud, modelling the Samanid Bukhara as a cultural center, made Ghazni into a center of learning, inviting Ferdowsi and al-Biruni. He even attempted to persuade Avicenna, but was refused.Шаблон:Sfn Mahmud preferred that his fame and glory be publicized in Persian and hundreds of poets assembled at his court.Шаблон:Sfn He brought whole libraries from Rayy and Isfahan to Ghazni and even demanded that the Khwarizmshah court send its men of learning to Ghazni.Шаблон:Sfn Due to his invasion of Rayy and Isfahan, Persian literary production was inaugurated in Azerbaijan and Iraq.Шаблон:Sfn
The Ghaznavids continued to develop historical writing in Persian that had been initiated by their predecessors, the Samanid Empire.Шаблон:Sfn The historian Abu'l-Fadl Bayhaqi's Tarikh-e Beyhaqi, written in the latter half of the 11th century, is an example.Шаблон:Sfn
Although the Ghaznavids were Turkic and their military leaders were generally of the same stock,Шаблон:Sfn as a result of the original involvement of Sebuktigin and Mahmud of Ghazni in Samanid affairs and in the Samanid cultural environment, the dynasty became thoroughly Persianized, so that in practice one cannot consider their rule over Iran one of foreign domination. They also copied their administrative system from the Samanids.Шаблон:Sfn In terms of cultural championship and the support of Persian poets, they were more Persian than their ethnically-Iranian rivals, the Buyid dynasty, whose support of Arabic letters in preference to Persian is well known.Шаблон:Sfn
The 16th century Persian historian, Firishta, records Sabuktigin's genealogy as descended from the Sasanian kings: "Subooktu-geen, the son of Jookan, the son of Kuzil-Hukum, the son of Kuzil-Arslan, the son of Ferooz, the son of Yezdijird, king of Persia." However, modern historians believe this was an attempt to connect himself with the history of old Persia.Шаблон:Sfn
Historian Bosworth explains: "In fact with the adoption of Persian administrative and cultural ways the Ghaznavids threw off their original Turkish steppe background and became largely integrated with the Perso-Islamic tradition."Шаблон:Sfn As a result, Ghazni developed into a great centre of Arabic learning.Шаблон:Sfn
With Sultan Mahmud's invasions of North India, Persian culture was established at Lahore, which later produced the famous poet, Masud Sa'd Salman.Шаблон:Sfn Lahore, under Ghaznavid rule in the 11th century, attracted Persian scholars from Khorasan, India and Central Asia and became a major Persian cultural centre.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn It was also during Mahmud's reign that Ghaznavid coinage began to have bilingual legends consisting of Arabic and Devanagari script.Шаблон:Sfn The entire range of Persianate institutions and customs that would come to characterize the political economy of most of India would be implemented by the later Ghaznavids.Шаблон:Sfn
The Persian culture established by the Ghaznavids in Ghazna and Eastern Afghanistan survived the Ghurid invasion in the 12th century and endured until the invasion of the Mongols.Шаблон:Sfn
Legacy
Шаблон:Continental Asia in 1100 CE At its height, the Ghaznavid empire grew to cover large parts of present-day Iran, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, all of Afghanistan, Pakistan and large parts of northwest India. The Ghaznavid rulers are generally credited with spreading Islam into the Indian subcontinent.
In addition to the wealth accumulated through raiding Indian cities, and exacting tribute from Indian rajas, the Ghaznavids also benefited from their position as an intermediary along the trade routes between China and the Mediterranean.
They were, however, unable to hold power for long and by 1040 the Seljuk Empire had taken over their Persian domains and a century later the Ghurids took over their remaining sub-continental lands.
The Ghaznavid conquests facilitated the beginning of the Turko-Afghan period into India, which would be further conducted by the Ghurids until the Turko-Afghans successfully established themselves in the Delhi Sultanate.[15][16]
List of rulers
| # | Laqab | Personal Name | Reign | Succession right | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Nasir-ud-din
Шаблон:Nastaliq |
Sabuktigin | 977–997 | ||
| 2 | No title | Ismail | 997–998 | son of Sabuktigin | |
| 3 | Yamin ad-Dawlah Abu Qasim Шаблон:Nastaliq Right-hand man of the State |
Mahmud | 998–1030 | first son of Sabuktigin | |
| 4 | Jalal ad-Dawlah Шаблон:Nastaliq Dignity of the State |
Muhammad | 1030 1st reign |
second son of Mahmud | |
| 5 | Shihab ad-Dawlah Шаблон:Nastaliq Star of the State |
Masud I | 1030–1041 | first son of Mahmud | Was overthrown, imprisoned and executed, following the battle of Dandanaqan |
| — | Jalal ad-Dawlah Шаблон:Nastaliq Dignity of the State |
Muhammad | 1041 2nd reign |
second son of Mahmud | Raised to the throne following the removal of Masud I. |
| 6 | Shihab ad-Dawlah Шаблон:Nastaliq Star of the State |
Mawdud | 1041–1048 | son of Masud I | Defeated Muhammad at the battle of Nangrahar and gained the throne.Шаблон:Sfn |
| 7 | ? Шаблон:Nastaliq |
Masud II | 1048 | son of Mawdud | |
| 8 | Baha ad-Dawlah Шаблон:Nastaliq Splendor of the State |
Ali | 1048–1049 | son of Masud I | |
| 9 | Izz ad-Dawlah Шаблон:Nastaliq Glory of the State |
Abd al-Rashid | 1049–1052 | fifth son of Mahmud | |
| 10 | Qiwam ad-Dawlah Шаблон:Nastaliq Support of the State |
Toghrul | 1052–1053 | Turkish mamluk general | Usurped the Ghaznavid throne after massacring Abd al-Rashid and eleven other Ghaznavid princes.Шаблон:Sfn |
| 11 | Jamal ad-Dawlah Шаблон:Nastaliq Beauty of the state |
Farrukh-Zad | 1053–1059 | son of Masud I | |
| 12 | Zahir ad-Dawlah Шаблон:Nastaliq Help of the State |
Ibrahim | 1059–1099 | son of Masud I | |
| 13 | Ala ad-Dawlah Шаблон:Nastaliq Blessing of the State |
Mas'ūd III | 1099–1115 | son of Ibrahim | |
| 14 | Kamal ad-Dawlah Шаблон:Nastaliq Perfection of the State |
Shir-Zad | 1115–1116 | son of Masud III | Murdered by his younger brother Arslan ibn Mas'ud.Шаблон:Sfn |
| 15 | Sultan ad-Dawlah Шаблон:Nastaliq Sultan of the state |
Arslan-Shah | 1116–1117 | son of Masud III | Took the throne from his older brother Shirzad, but faced a rebellion from his other brother Bahram Shah, who was supported by the sultan of the Great Seljuq Empire, Ahmad Sanjar.Шаблон:Sfn |
| 16 | Yamin ad-Dawlah Шаблон:Nastaliq Right-hand man of the state |
Bahram Shah | 1117–1157 | son of Masud III | Under Bahram-Shah, the Ghaznavid empire became a tributary of the Great Seljuq Empire. Bahram was assisted by Ahmad Sanjar, sultan of the Great Seljuq empire, in securing his throne.Шаблон:Sfn |
| 17 | Muizz ad-Dawlah Шаблон:Nastaliq Honor of the State |
Khusrau Shah | 1157–1160 | son of Bahram-Shah | |
| 18 | Taj ad-Dawlah Шаблон:Nastaliq Crown of the state |
Khusrau Malik | 1160–1186 | son of Khusrau-Shah |
Шаблон:Family tree of the Ghaznavid sultans
See also
Шаблон:History of Afghanistan Шаблон:History of Greater Iran Шаблон:History of Pakistan Шаблон:History of Turkmenistan Шаблон:History of the Turks pre-14th century
- List of battles involving the Ghaznavid Empire
- History of Afghanistan
- History of Pakistan
- List of Sunni Muslim dynasties
Notes
References
Sources
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite encyclopedia
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite encyclopedia
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite encyclopedia
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Citation
- Шаблон:Cite encyclopedia
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite encyclopedia
- Шаблон:Cite encyclopedia
Further reading
- Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1963) The Ghaznavids: Their Empire in Afghanistan and Eastern Iran 994–1040 Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, Шаблон:OCLC
- Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1977) The Later Ghaznavids: Splendour and Decay, The Dynasty in Afghanistan and Northern India 1040–1186 Columbia University Press, New York, Шаблон:ISBN
- Шаблон:Citation
- M. Ismail Marcinkowski (2003) Persian Historiography and Geography: Bertold Spuler on Major Works Produced in Iran, the Caucasus, Central Asia, India and Early Ottoman Turkey Pustaka Nasional, Singapore, Шаблон:ISBN
External links
Шаблон:Commons category Шаблон:Wikiquote
- Mahmud of Ghazna Columbia Encyclopedia (Sixth Edition)
- Mahmud Encyclopædia Britannica (Online Edition)
- Ghaznavid Dynasty Encyclopædia Britannica (Online Edition)
- Ghaznavids and Ghurids Encyclopædia Britannica (Online Edition)
- Mahmud Ghaznavi's 17 invasions of India
- The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Periodby Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877 Elliot, Sir H. M., Edited by Dowson, John. The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period published by London Trubner Company 1867–1877. (Online Copy: – Online version posted by: The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in translation)
- Afghan secrets revealed on Google Earth
- Шаблон:Cite EB1911
Шаблон:Central Asian history Шаблон:Empires Шаблон:Afghanistan topics Шаблон:Iran topics Шаблон:Iranian Intermezzo Шаблон:Authority control
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 4,0 4,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:EB1911
- ↑ 10,0 10,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Ralph Pinder-Wilson (2001) Ghaznavid and Ghūrid Minarets, Iran, 39:1, 155-186, DOI: 10.1080/05786967.2001.11834389
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
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