Английская Википедия:Global warming potential

Comparison of global warming potential (GWP) of three greenhouse gases over a 100-year period: Perfluorotributylamine, nitrous oxide, methane and carbon dioxide (the latter is the reference value, therefore it has a GWP of one)

Global Warming Potential (GWP) is an index to measure of how much infrared thermal radiation a greenhouse gas would absorb over a given time frame after it has been added to the atmosphere (or emitted to the atmosphere). The GWP makes different greenhouse gases comparable with regards to their "effectiveness in causing radiative forcing".^[1]Шаблон:Rp It is expressed as a multiple of the radiation that would be absorbed by the same mass of added carbon dioxide (Шаблон:CO2), which is taken as a reference gas. Therefore, the GWP is one for Шаблон:CO2. For other gases it depends on how strongly the gas absorbs infrared thermal radiation, how quickly the gas leaves the atmosphere, and the time frame being considered.

For example, methane has a GWP over 20 years (GWP-20) of 81.2^[2] meaning that, for example, a leak of a tonne of methane is equivalent to emitting 81.2 tonnes of carbon dioxide measured over 20 years. As methane has a much shorter atmospheric lifetime than carbon dioxide, its GWP is much less over longer time periods, with a GWP-100 of 27.9 and a GWP-500 of 7.95.^[2]Шаблон:Rp

The carbon dioxide equivalent (Шаблон:CO2e or Шаблон:CO2eq or Шаблон:CO2-e) can be calculated from the GWP. For any gas, it is the mass of Шаблон:CO2 that would warm the earth as much as the mass of that gas. Thus it provides a common scale for measuring the climate effects of different gases. It is calculated as GWP times mass of the other gas.

Definition

Шаблон:See also

The global warming potential (GWP) is defined as an "index measuring the radiative forcing following an emission of a unit mass of a given substance, accumulated over a chosen time horizon, relative to that of the reference substance, carbon dioxide (CO2). The GWP thus represents the combined effect of the differing times these substances remain in the atmosphere and their effectiveness in causing radiative forcing."^[1]Шаблон:Rp

In turn, radiative forcing is a scientific concept used to quantify and compare the external drivers of change to Earth's energy balance.^[3]Шаблон:Rp Radiative forcing is the change in energy flux in the atmosphere caused by natural or anthropogenic factors of climate change as measured in watts per meter squared.^[4]

Values

Global warming potential of five greenhouse gases over 100-year timescale.^[5]

The global warming potential (GWP) depends on both the efficiency of the molecule as a greenhouse gas and its atmospheric lifetime. GWP is measured relative to the same mass of Шаблон:CO2 and evaluated for a specific timescale.^[6] Thus, if a gas has a high (positive) radiative forcing but also a short lifetime, it will have a large GWP on a 20-year scale but a small one on a 100-year scale. Conversely, if a molecule has a longer atmospheric lifetime than Шаблон:CO2 its GWP will increase when the timescale is considered. Carbon dioxide is defined to have a GWP of 1 over all time periods.

Methane has an atmospheric lifetime of 12 ± 2 years.^[7]Шаблон:Rp The 2021 IPCC report lists the GWP as 83 over a time scale of 20 years, 30 over 100 years and 10 over 500 years.^[7]Шаблон:Rp A 2014 analysis, however, states that although methane's initial impact is about 100 times greater than that of Шаблон:CO2, because of the shorter atmospheric lifetime, after six or seven decades, the impact of the two gases is about equal, and from then on methane's relative role continues to decline.^[8] The decrease in GWP at longer times is because methane decomposes to water and Шаблон:CO2 through chemical reactions in the atmosphere.

Examples of the atmospheric lifetime and GWP relative to Шаблон:CO2 for several greenhouse gases are given in the following table:

Atmospheric lifetime and global warming potential (GWP) relative to Шаблон:CO2 at different time horizon for various greenhouse gases (more values provided at global warming potential)
Gas name	Chemical formula	Lifetime (years)^[7]Шаблон:Rp^[9]	Radiative Efficiency (WmШаблон:Supppb Шаблон:Sup, molar basis).^[7]Шаблон:Rp^[9]	Global warming potential (GWP) for given time horizon
Gas name	Chemical formula	Lifetime (years)^[7]Шаблон:Rp^[9]		20-yr.^[7]Шаблон:Rp^[9]	100-yr.^[7]Шаблон:Rp^[9]	500-yr.^[7]Шаблон:Rp^[10]
Carbon dioxide	Шаблон:CO2	^(A)	Шаблон:Val	1	1	1
Methane (fossil)	Шаблон:Chem	12	Шаблон:Val	83	30	10
Methane (non-fossil)	Шаблон:Chem	12	Шаблон:Val	81	27	7.3
Nitrous oxide	Шаблон:Chem	109	Шаблон:Val	273	273	130
CFC-11	Шаблон:Chem	52	Шаблон:Val	8 321	6 226	2 093
CFC-12	Шаблон:Chem	100	Шаблон:Val	10 800	10 200	5 200
HCFC-22	Шаблон:Chem	12	Шаблон:Val	5 280	1 760	549
HFC-32	Шаблон:Chem	5	Шаблон:Val	2 693	771	220
HFC-134a	Шаблон:Chem	14	Шаблон:Val	4 144	1 526	436
Tetrafluoromethane	Шаблон:Chem	50 000	Шаблон:Val	5 301	7 380	10 587
Hexafluoroethane	Шаблон:Chem	10 000	Шаблон:Val	8 210	11 100	18 200
Sulfur hexafluoride	Шаблон:Chem	3 200	Шаблон:Val	17 500	23 500	32 600
Nitrogen trifluoride	Шаблон:Chem	500	Шаблон:Val	12 800	16 100	20 700
^(A) No single lifetime for atmospheric Шаблон:CO2 can be given.

Estimates of GWP values over 20, 100 and 500 years are periodically compiled and revised in reports from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. The most recent report is the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report (Working Group I) from 2023.^[7]

The IPCC lists many other substances not shown here.^[11]^[7] Some have high GWP but only a low concentration in the atmosphere.

The values given in the table assume the same mass of compound is analyzed; different ratios will result from the conversion of one substance to another. For instance, burning methane to carbon dioxide would reduce the global warming impact, but by a smaller factor than 25:1 because the mass of methane burned is less than the mass of carbon dioxide released (ratio 1:2.74).^[12] For a starting amount of 1 tonne of methane, which has a GWP of 25, after combustion there would be 2.74 tonnes of Шаблон:CO2, each tonne of which has a GWP of 1. This is a net reduction of 22.26 tonnes of GWP, reducing the global warming effect by a ratio of 25:2.74 (approximately 9 times).

Greenhouse gas	Lifetime (years)	Global warming potential, GWP
Greenhouse gas	Lifetime (years)	20 years	100 years	500 years
Hydrogen (H₂)	4–7^[13]	33 (20-44)^[13]	11 (6–16)^[13]	Шаблон:N/a
Methane (Шаблон:CH4)	11.8^[7]	56^[14] 72^[15] 84 / 86f^[11] 96^[16] 80.8 (biogenic)^[7] 82.5 (fossil)^[7]	21^[14] 25^[15] 28 / 34f^[11] 32^[17] 39 (biogenic)^[18] 40 (fossil)^[18]	6.5^[14] 7.6^[15]
Nitrous oxide (Шаблон:N2O)	109^[7]	280^[14] 289^[15] 264 / 268f^[11] 273^[7]	310^[14] 298^[15] 265 / 298f^[11] 273^[7]	170^[14] 153^[15] 130^[7]
HFC-134a (hydrofluorocarbon)	14.0^[7]	3,710 / 3,790f^[11] 4,144^[7]	1,300 / 1,550f^[11] 1,526^[7]	435^[15] 436^[7]
CFC-11 (chlorofluorocarbon)	52.0^[7]	6,900 / 7,020f^[11] 8,321^[7]	4,660 / 5,350f^[11] 6,226^[7]	1,620^[15] 2,093^[7]
Carbon tetrafluoride (CFШаблон:Sub / PFC-14)	50,000^[7]	4,880 / 4,950f^[11] 5,301^[7]	6,630 / 7,350f^[11] 7,380^[7]	11,200^[15] 10,587^[7]
HFC-23 (hydrofluorocarbon)	222^[11]	12,000^[15] 10,800^[11]	14,800^[15] 12,400^[11]	12,200^[15]
Sulfur hexafluoride Шаблон:Chem2	3,200^[11]	16,300^[15] 17,500^[11]	22,800^[15] 23,500^[11]	32,600^[15]

Earlier values from 2007

The values provided in the table below are from 2007 when they were published in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report.^[19]^[15] These values are still used (as of 2020) for some comparisons.^[20]

Greenhouse gas	Chemical formula	100-year Global warming potentials (2007 estimates, for 2013–2020 comparisons)
Carbon dioxide	CO₂	1
Methane	CH₄	25
Nitrous oxide	N₂O	298
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
HFC-23	CHF₃	14,800
Difluoromethane (HFC-32)	CH₂F₂	675
Fluoromethane (HFC-41)	CH₃F	92
HFC-43-10mee	CF₃CHFCHFCF₂CF₃	1,640
Pentafluoroethane (HFC-125)	C₂HF₅	3,500
HFC-134	C₂H₂F₄ (CHF₂CHF₂)	1,100
1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane (HFC-134a)	C₂H₂F₄ (CH₂FCF₃)	1,430
HFC-143	C₂H₃F₃ (CHF₂CH₂F)	353
1,1,1-Trifluoroethane (HFC-143a)	C₂H₃F₃ (CF₃CH₃)	4,470
HFC-152	CH₂FCH₂F	53
HFC-152a	C₂H₄F₂ (CH₃CHF₂)	124
HFC-161	CH₃CH₂F	12
1,1,1,2,3,3,3-Heptafluoropropane (HFC-227ea)	C₃HF7	3,220
HFC-236cb	CH₂FCF₂CF₃	1,340
HFC-236ea	CHF₂CHFCF₃	1,370
HFC-236fa	C₃H₂F₆	9,810
HFC-245ca	C₃H₃F₅	693
HFC-245fa	CHF₂CH₂CF₃	1,030
HFC-365mfc	CH₃CF₂CH₂CF₃	794
Perfluorocarbons
Carbon tetrafluoride – PFC-14	CF₄	7,390
Hexafluoroethane – PFC-116	C₂F₆	12,200
Octafluoropropane – PFC-218	C₃F₈	8,830
Perfluorobutane – PFC-3-1-10	C₄F₁₀	8,860
Octafluorocyclobutane – PFC-318	c-C₄F₈	10,300
Perfluouropentane – PFC-4-1-12	C₅F₁₂	9,160
Perfluorohexane – PFC-5-1-14	C₆F₁₄	9,300
Perfluorodecalin – PFC-9-1-18b	C₁₀F₁₈	7,500
Perfluorocyclopropane	c-C₃F₆	17,340
Sulfur hexafluoride (SF₆)
Sulfur hexafluoride	SF₆	22,800
Nitrogen trifluoride (NF₃)
Nitrogen trifluoride	NF₃	17,200
Fluorinated ethers
HFE-125	CHF₂OCF₃	14,900
Bis(difluoromethyl) ether (HFE-134)	CHF₂OCHF₂	6,320
HFE-143a	CH₃OCF₃	756
HCFE-235da2	CHF₂OCHClCF₃	350
HFE-245cb2	CH₃OCF₂CF₃	708
HFE-245fa2	CHF₂OCH₂CF₃	659
HFE-254cb2	CH₃OCF₂CHF₂	359
HFE-347mcc3	CH₃OCF₂CF₂CF₃	575
HFE-347pcf2	CHF₂CF₂OCH₂CF₃	580
HFE-356pcc3	CH₃OCF₂CF₂CHF₂	110
HFE-449sl (HFE-7100)	C₄F9OCH₃	297
HFE-569sf2 (HFE-7200)	C₄F9OC₂H₅	59
HFE-43-10pccc124 (H-Galden 1040x)	CHF₂OCF₂OC₂F₄OCHF₂	1,870
HFE-236ca12 (HG-10)	CHF₂OCF₂OCHF₂	2,800
HFE-338pcc13 (HG-01)	CHF₂OCF₂CF₂OCHF₂	1,500
	(CF₃)₂CFOCH₃	343
	CF₃CF₂CH₂OH	42
	(CF₃)₂CHOH	195
HFE-227ea	CF₃CHFOCF₃	1,540
HFE-236ea2	CHF₂OCHFCF₃	989
HFE-236fa	CF₃CH₂OCF₃	487
HFE-245fa1	CHF₂CH₂OCF₃	286
HFE-263fb2	CF₃CH₂OCH₃	11
HFE-329mcc2	CHF₂CF₂OCF₂CF₃	919
HFE-338mcf2	CF₃CH₂OCF₂CF₃	552
HFE-347mcf2	CHF₂CH₂OCF₂CF₃	374
HFE-356mec3	CH₃OCF₂CHFCF₃	101
HFE-356pcf2	CHF₂CH₂OCF₂CHF₂	265
HFE-356pcf3	CHF₂OCH₂CF₂CHF₂	502
HFE-365mcfI’ll t3	CF₃CF₂CH₂OCH₃	11
HFE-374pc2	CHF₂CF₂OCH₂CH₃	557
	– (CF₂)₄CH (OH) –	73
	(CF₃)₂CHOCHF₂	380
	(CF₃)₂CHOCH₃	27
Perfluoropolyethers
PFPMIE	CF₃OCF(CF₃)CF₂OCF₂OCF₃	10,300
Trifluoromethyl sulfur pentafluoride	SF₅CF₃	17,400

Importance of time horizon

A substance's GWP depends on the number of years (denoted by a subscript) over which the potential is calculated. A gas which is quickly removed from the atmosphere may initially have a large effect, but for longer time periods, as it has been removed, it becomes less important. Thus methane has a potential of 25 over 100 years (GWP₁₀₀ = 25) but 86 over 20 years (GWP₂₀ = 86); conversely sulfur hexafluoride has a GWP of 22,800 over 100 years but 16,300 over 20 years (IPCC Third Assessment Report). The GWP value depends on how the gas concentration decays over time in the atmosphere. This is often not precisely known and hence the values should not be considered exact. For this reason when quoting a GWP it is important to give a reference to the calculation.

The GWP for a mixture of gases can be obtained from the mass-fraction-weighted average of the GWPs of the individual gases.^[21]

Commonly, a time horizon of 100 years is used by regulators.^[22]^[23]

Water vapour

Water vapour does contribute to anthropogenic global warming, but as the GWP is defined, it is negligible for H₂O: an estimate gives a 100-year GWP between -0.001 and 0.0005.^[24]

H₂O can function as a greenhouse gas because it has a profound infrared absorption spectrum with more and broader absorption bands than Шаблон:CO2. Its concentration in the atmosphere is limited by air temperature, so that radiative forcing by water vapour increases with global warming (positive feedback). But the GWP definition excludes indirect effects. GWP definition is also based on emissions, and anthropogenic emissions of water vapour (cooling towers, irrigation) are removed via precipitation within weeks, so its GWP is negligible.

Calculation methods

Файл:1979- Radiative forcing - climate change - global warming - EPA NOAA.svg

The radiative forcing (warming influence) of long-lived atmospheric greenhouse gases has accelerated, almost doubling in 40 years.^[25]^[26]^[27]

When calculating the GWP of a greenhouse gas, the value depends on the following factors:

the absorption of infrared radiation by the given gas
the time horizon of interest (integration period)
the atmospheric lifetime of the gas

A high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime. The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated. Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength, this may not affect its GWP much, if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength. A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a "window" of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent. The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph.^[28]

Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum, the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change.

Just as radiative forcing provides a simplified means of comparing the various factors that are believed to influence the climate system to one another, global warming potentials (GWPs) are one type of simplified index based upon radiative properties that can be used to estimate the potential future impacts of emissions of different gases upon the climate system in a relative sense. GWP is based on a number of factors, including the radiative efficiency (infrared-absorbing ability) of each gas relative to that of carbon dioxide, as well as the decay rate of each gas (the amount removed from the atmosphere over a given number of years) relative to that of carbon dioxide.^[29]

The radiative forcing capacity (RF) is the amount of energy per unit area, per unit time, absorbed by the greenhouse gas, that would otherwise be lost to space. It can be expressed by the formula:

<math display="block">\mathit{RF} = \sum_{i=1}^{100} \text{abs}_i \cdot F_i / \left(\text{l} \cdot \text{d}\right)</math> where the subscript i represents a wavenumber interval of 10 inverse centimeters. Abs_i represents the integrated infrared absorbance of the sample in that interval, and F_i represents the RF for that interval.Шаблон:Citation needed

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) provides the generally accepted values for GWP, which changed slightly between 1996 and 2001, except for methane, which had its GWP almost doubled. An exact definition of how GWP is calculated is to be found in the IPCC's 2001 Third Assessment Report.^[30] The GWP is defined as the ratio of the time-integrated radiative forcing from the instantaneous release of 1 kg of a trace substance relative to that of 1 kg of a reference gas:

<math display="block">\mathit{GWP} \left(x\right) = \frac{a_x}{a_r} \frac{\int_0^{\mathit{TH}} [x](t)\, dt} {\int_0^{\mathit{TH}} [r](t)\, dt}</math> where TH is the time horizon over which the calculation is considered; a_x is the radiative efficiency due to a unit increase in atmospheric abundance of the substance (i.e., Wm⁻² kg⁻¹) and [x](t) is the time-dependent decay in abundance of the substance following an instantaneous release of it at time t=0. The denominator contains the corresponding quantities for the reference gas (i.e. Шаблон:CO2). The radiative efficiencies a_x and a_r are not necessarily constant over time. While the absorption of infrared radiation by many greenhouse gases varies linearly with their abundance, a few important ones display non-linear behaviour for current and likely future abundances (e.g., Шаблон:CO2, CH₄, and N₂O). For those gases, the relative radiative forcing will depend upon abundance and hence upon the future scenario adopted.

Since all GWP calculations are a comparison to Шаблон:CO2 which is non-linear, all GWP values are affected. Assuming otherwise as is done above will lead to lower GWPs for other gases than a more detailed approach would. Clarifying this, while increasing Шаблон:CO2 has less and less effect on radiative absorption as ppm concentrations rise, more powerful greenhouse gases like methane and nitrous oxide have different thermal absorption frequencies to Шаблон:CO2 that are not filled up (saturated) as much as Шаблон:CO2, so rising ppms of these gases are far more significant.

Applications

Carbon dioxide equivalent

Carbon dioxide equivalent (Шаблон:CO2e or Шаблон:CO2eq or Шаблон:CO2-e) of a quantity of gas is calculated from its GWP. For any gas, it is the mass of Шаблон:CO2 which would warm the earth as much as the mass of that gas.^[31] Thus it provides a common scale for measuring the climate effects of different gases. It is calculated as GWP multiplied by mass of the other gas. For example, if a gas has GWP of 100, two tonnes of the gas have Шаблон:CO2e of 200 tonnes, and 9 tonnes of the gas has Шаблон:CO2e of 900 tonnes.

On a global scale, the warming effects of one or more greenhouse gases in the atmosphere can also be expressed as an equivalent atmospheric concentration of Шаблон:CO2. Шаблон:CO2e can then be the atmospheric concentration of Шаблон:CO2 which would warm the earth as much as a particular concentration of some other gas or of all gases and aerosols in the atmosphere. For example, Шаблон:CO2e of 500 parts per million would reflect a mix of atmospheric gases which warm the earth as much as 500 parts per million of Шаблон:CO2 would warm it.^[32]^[33] Calculation of the equivalent atmospheric concentration of Шаблон:CO2 of an atmospheric greenhouse gas or aerosol is more complex and involves the atmospheric concentrations of those gases, their GWPs, and the ratios of their molar masses to the molar mass of Шаблон:CO2.

Шаблон:CO2e calculations depend on the time-scale chosen, typically 100 years or 20 years,^[34]^[35] since gases decay in the atmosphere or are absorbed naturally, at different rates.

The following units are commonly used:

By the UN climate change panel (IPCC): billion metric tonnes = n×10⁹ tonnes of Шаблон:CO2 equivalent (GtШаблон:CO2eq)^[36]
In industry: million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalents (MMTCDE)^[37] and MMT Шаблон:CO2eq.^[20]
For vehicles: grams of carbon dioxide equivalent per mile (gШаблон:CO2e/mile) or per kilometer (gШаблон:CO2e/km)^[38]^[39]

For example, the table above shows GWP for methane over 20 years at 86 and nitrous oxide at 289, so emissions of 1 million tonnes of methane or nitrous oxide are equivalent to emissions of 86 or 289 million tonnes of carbon dioxide, respectively.

Use in Kyoto Protocol and for reporting to UNFCCC

Under the Kyoto Protocol, in 1997 the Conference of the Parties standardized international reporting, by deciding (see decision number 2/CP.3) that the values of GWP calculated for the IPCC Second Assessment Report were to be used for converting the various greenhouse gas emissions into comparable Шаблон:CO2 equivalents.^[40]^[41]

After some intermediate updates, in 2013 this standard was updated by the Warsaw meeting of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC, decision number 24/CP.19) to require using a new set of 100-year GWP values. They published these values in Annex III, and they took them from the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, which had been published in 2007.^[19] Those 2007 estimates are still used for international comparisons through 2020,^[20] although the latest research on warming effects has found other values, as shown in the tables above.

Though recent reports reflect more scientific accuracy, countries and companies continue to use the IPCC Second Assessment Report (SAR)^[14] and IPCC Fourth Assessment Report values for reasons of comparison in their emission reports. The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report has skipped the 500-year values but introduced GWP estimations including the climate-carbon feedback (f) with a large amount of uncertainty.^[11]

Other metrics to compare greenhouse gases

The Global Temperature change Potential (GTP) is another way to compare gases. While GWP estimates infrared thermal radiation absorbed, GTP estimates the resulting rise in average surface temperature of the world, over the next 20, 50 or 100 years, caused by a greenhouse gas, relative to the temperature rise which the same mass of Шаблон:CO2 would cause.^[11] Calculation of GTP requires modelling how the world, especially the oceans, will absorb heat.^[22] GTP is published in the same IPCC tables with GWP.^[11]

GWP* has been proposed to take better account of short-lived climate pollutants (SLCP) such as methane, relating a change in the rate of emissions of SLCPs to a fixed quantity of Шаблон:CO2.^[42] However GWP* has itself been criticised both for its suitability as a metric and for inherent design features which can perpetuate injustices and inequity.^[43]^[44]^[45]

References

Шаблон:Reflist

Sources

External links

List of Global Warming Potentials and Atmospheric Lifetimes from the U.S. EPA
GWP and the different meanings of Шаблон:CO2e explained

Шаблон:Climate change

↑ ^1,0 ^1,1 IPCC, 2021: Annex VII: Glossary [Matthews, J.B.R., V. Möller, R. van Diemen, J.S. Fuglestvedt, V. Masson-Delmotte, C. Méndez, S. Semenov, A. Reisinger (eds.)]. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2215–2256, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.022.
↑ ^2,0 ^2,1 Шаблон:Citation.
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↑ IPCC, 2021: Annex VII: Glossary [Matthews, J.B.R., V. Möller, R. van Diemen, J.S. Fuglestvedt, V. Masson-Delmotte, C. Méndez, S. Semenov, A. Reisinger (eds.)]. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2215–2256, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.022.
↑ ^7,00 ^7,01 ^7,02 ^7,03 ^7,04 ^7,05 ^7,06 ^7,07 ^7,08 ^7,09 ^7,10 ^7,11 ^7,12 ^7,13 ^7,14 ^7,15 ^7,16 ^7,17 ^7,18 ^7,19 ^7,20 ^7,21 ^7,22 ^7,23 ^7,24 ^7,25 ^7,26 ^7,27 Forster, P., T. Storelvmo, K. Armour, W. Collins, J.-L. Dufresne, D. Frame, D.J. Lunt, T. Mauritsen, M.D. Palmer, M. Watanabe, M. Wild, and H. Zhang, 2021: Chapter 7: The Earth’s Energy Budget, Climate Feedbacks, and Climate Sensitivity. In https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/ [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 923–1054, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.009.
↑ Шаблон:Cite news Referenced paper is Шаблон:Cite journal
↑ ^9,0 ^9,1 ^9,2 ^9,3 Шаблон:Cite book
↑ Шаблон:Cite book
↑ ^11,00 ^11,01 ^11,02 ^11,03 ^11,04 ^11,05 ^11,06 ^11,07 ^11,08 ^11,09 ^11,10 ^11,11 ^11,12 ^11,13 ^11,14 ^11,15 ^11,16 ^11,17 ^11,18 ^11,19 Шаблон:Harvnb.
↑ This is so, because of the reaction formula: CH₄ + 2O₂ → Шаблон:CO2 + 2 H₂O. As mentioned in the article, the oxygen and water is not considered for GWP purposes, and one molecule of methane (molar mass = 16.04 g mol⁻¹) will yield one molecule of carbon dioxide (molar mass = 44.01 g mol⁻¹). This gives a mass ratio of 2.74. (44.01/16.04 ≈ 2.74).
↑ ^13,0 ^13,1 ^13,2 Шаблон:Cite report
↑ ^14,0 ^14,1 ^14,2 ^14,3 ^14,4 ^14,5 ^14,6 Шаблон:Harvnb.
↑ ^15,00 ^15,01 ^15,02 ^15,03 ^15,04 ^15,05 ^15,06 ^15,07 ^15,08 ^15,09 ^15,10 ^15,11 ^15,12 ^15,13 ^15,14 ^15,15 Шаблон:Harvnb.
↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
↑ ^18,0 ^18,1 Шаблон:Cite news
↑ ^19,0 ^19,1 Шаблон:Cite web
↑ ^20,0 ^20,1 ^20,2 Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Regulation (EU) No 517/2014 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 April 2014 on fluorinated greenhouse gases Annex IV.
↑ ^22,0 ^22,1 Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
↑ Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Matthew Elrod, "Greenhouse Warming Potential Model." Based on Шаблон:Cite journal
↑ Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
↑ Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Шаблон:Cite book
↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
↑ Шаблон:Cite journal

[:2-1] 1,0 ^1,1 IPCC, 2021: Annex VII: Glossary [Matthews, J.B.R., V. Möller, R. van Diemen, J.S. Fuglestvedt, V. Masson-Delmotte, C. Méndez, S. Semenov, A. Reisinger (eds.)]. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2215–2256, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.022.

[:0-2] 2,0 ^2,1 Шаблон:Citation.

[nrcrf-3] Шаблон:Cite book

[4] Шаблон:Cite web

[5] Шаблон:Cite web

[:02-6] IPCC, 2021: Annex VII: Glossary [Matthews, J.B.R., V. Möller, R. van Diemen, J.S. Fuglestvedt, V. Masson-Delmotte, C. Méndez, S. Semenov, A. Reisinger (eds.)]. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2215–2256, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.022.

[ar6_WG1_Ch_7-7] 7,00 ^7,01 ^7,02 ^7,03 ^7,04 ^7,05 ^7,06 ^7,07 ^7,08 ^7,09 ^7,10 ^7,11 ^7,12 ^7,13 ^7,14 ^7,15 ^7,16 ^7,17 ^7,18 ^7,19 ^7,20 ^7,21 ^7,22 ^7,23 ^7,24 ^7,25 ^7,26 ^7,27 Forster, P., T. Storelvmo, K. Armour, W. Collins, J.-L. Dufresne, D. Frame, D.J. Lunt, T. Mauritsen, M.D. Palmer, M. Watanabe, M. Wild, and H. Zhang, 2021: Chapter 7: The Earth’s Energy Budget, Climate Feedbacks, and Climate Sensitivity. In https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/ [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 923–1054, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.009.

[8] Шаблон:Cite news Referenced paper is Шаблон:Cite journal

[TableOfWarmingPotentials5-9] 9,0 ^9,1 ^9,2 ^9,3 Шаблон:Cite book

[TableOfWarmingPotentials-10] Шаблон:Cite book

[ar5-11] 11,00 ^11,01 ^11,02 ^11,03 ^11,04 ^11,05 ^11,06 ^11,07 ^11,08 ^11,09 ^11,10 ^11,11 ^11,12 ^11,13 ^11,14 ^11,15 ^11,16 ^11,17 ^11,18 ^11,19 Шаблон:Harvnb.

[12] This is so, because of the reaction formula: CH₄ + 2O₂ → Шаблон:CO2 + 2 H₂O. As mentioned in the article, the oxygen and water is not considered for GWP purposes, and one molecule of methane (molar mass = 16.04 g mol⁻¹) will yield one molecule of carbon dioxide (molar mass = 44.01 g mol⁻¹). This gives a mass ratio of 2.74. (44.01/16.04 ≈ 2.74).

[:3-13] 13,0 ^13,1 ^13,2 Шаблон:Cite report

[sar-14] 14,0 ^14,1 ^14,2 ^14,3 ^14,4 ^14,5 ^14,6 Шаблон:Harvnb.

[ar4-15] 15,00 ^15,01 ^15,02 ^15,03 ^15,04 ^15,05 ^15,06 ^15,07 ^15,08 ^15,09 ^15,10 ^15,11 ^15,12 ^15,13 ^15,14 ^15,15 Шаблон:Harvnb.

[16] Шаблон:Cite journal

[17] Шаблон:Cite journal

[:4-18] 18,0 ^18,1 Шаблон:Cite news

[unfccc19-19] 19,0 ^19,1 Шаблон:Cite web

[epa20-20] 20,0 ^20,1 ^20,2 Шаблон:Cite web

[21] Regulation (EU) No 517/2014 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 April 2014 on fluorinated greenhouse gases Annex IV.

[:1-22] 22,0 ^22,1 Шаблон:Cite web

[23] Шаблон:Cite journal

[24] Шаблон:Cite journal

[NOAA_AGGI_2022-25] Шаблон:Cite web

[26] Шаблон:Cite web

[butmon-27] Шаблон:Cite web

[28] Matthew Elrod, "Greenhouse Warming Potential Model." Based on Шаблон:Cite journal

[29] Шаблон:Cite web

[30] Шаблон:Cite web

[epadef-31] Шаблон:Cite web

[eea-32] Шаблон:Cite web

[rmets-33] Шаблон:Cite journal

[Wedderburn-Bisshop_et_al_2015-34] Шаблон:Cite journal

[OckoHamburg2017-35] Шаблон:Cite journal

[36] Шаблон:Cite journal

[37] Шаблон:Cite web

[ucs-ev-38] Шаблон:Cite web

[rcs-39] Шаблон:Cite web

[40] Шаблон:Cite book

[41] Шаблон:Cite journal

[42] Шаблон:Cite journal

[43] Шаблон:Cite journal

[44] Шаблон:Cite journal

[45] Шаблон:Cite journal

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Английская Википедия:Global warming potential

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