Английская Википедия:Grimm's law

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Contains special charactersШаблон:In-text citationsШаблон:More citations needed Grimm's law (also known as the First Germanic Sound Shift) is a set of sound laws describing the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) stop consonants as they developed in Proto-Germanic in the 1st millennium BC. First discovered by Rasmus Rask but systematically put forward by Jacob Grimm, it establishes a set of regular correspondences between early Germanic stops and fricatives and stop consonants of certain other centum Indo-European languages.

History

Grimm's law was the first discovered systematic sound change, creating historical phonology as a historical linguistics discipline. Friedrich von Schlegel first noted the correspondence between Latin p and Germanic f in 1806. In 1818, Rasmus Rask extended the correspondences to other Indo-European languages like Sanskrit and Greek and to the full range of consonants involved. In 1822, Jacob Grimm put forth the rule in his book Deutsche Grammatik and extended it to include standard German. He noticed many words had consonants different from what his law predicted. These exceptions defied linguists for several decades, until they eventually received explanation from Danish linguist Karl Verner in the form of Verner's law.

Overview

Grimm's law consists of three parts, forming consecutive phases in the sense of a chain shift.[1] The phases are usually constructed as follows:

  1. Proto-Indo-European voiceless stops change into voiceless fricatives.
  2. Proto-Indo-European voiced stops become voiceless stops.
  3. Proto-Indo-European voiced aspirated stops become voiced stops or fricatives (as allophones).

This chain shift (in the order 3, 2,1) can be abstractly represented as:

Here each sound moves one position to the right to take on its new sound value. Within Proto-Germanic, the sounds denoted by Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr and Шаблон:Angbr were stops in some environments and fricatives in others, so Шаблон:PIE → Шаблон:PIE indicates Шаблон:PIE → Шаблон:PIE, and likewise for the others. The voiceless fricatives are customarily spelled Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr and Шаблон:Angbr in the context of Germanic.

The exact details of the shift are unknown, and it may have progressed in a variety of ways before arriving at the final situation. The three stages listed above show the progression of a "pull chain", in which each change leaves a "gap" in the phonological system that "pulls" other phonemes into it to fill the gap. Alternatively, the shift may have occurred as a “push chain”, where the sounds changed in reverse order, with each change "pushing" the next forward to avoid merging the phonemes.

The steps could also have occurred somewhat differently. Another possible sequence of events could have been:

  1. Voiceless stops are allophonically aspirated under most conditions.
  2. Voiced stops become unaspirated voiceless stops.
  3. All aspirated stops become fricatives.

This sequence would lead to the same result. This variety of Grimm's law is often suggested in the context of Proto-Indo-European glottalic theory, which is followed by a minority of linguists. This theoretical framework assumes that PIE "voiced stops" were actually voiceless to begin with, so that the second phase did not actually exist as such, or was not actually devoicing but was losing some other articulatory feature like glottalization or ejectiveness. This alternative sequence also accounts for Verner's law phonetics (see below), which are easier to explain within the glottalic theory framework when Grimm's law is formulated in this manner. Additionally, aspirated stops are known to have changed to fricatives when transiting between Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Italic, so representing a plausible potential change from Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic.

Further changes

Once the sounds described by Grimm's law had changed, only one type of voiced consonant was left, with no distinction between voiced stops and voiced fricatives. They eventually became stops at the start of a word (for the most part), as well as after a nasal consonant, but fricatives elsewhere. Whether they were plosives or fricatives at first is therefore not clear. The voiced aspirated stops may have first become voiced fricatives, before becoming stops under certain conditions. But they may also have become stops at first, then become fricatives in most positions later.

Around the same time as the Grimm's law sounds shifted, another change occurred known as Verner's law. Verner's law caused the voiceless fricatives that resulted from the Grimm's law changes to become voiced under certain conditions, creating apparent exceptions to the rule. For example:

  • Proto-Indo-European *bʰréh₂tēr ("brother") > Proto-Germanic *brōþēr (Old English broþor, Old High German bruothar/bruodar)
  • Proto-Indo-European *ph₂tḗr ("father") > Proto-Germanic *faðēr (Old English fæder, Old High German fatar)

Here, the same sound *t appears as *þ Шаблон:IPA in one word (following Grimm's law), but as *d Шаблон:IPA in another (apparently violating Grimm's law). See the Verner's law article for a more detailed explanation of this discrepancy.

The early Germanic *gw that had arisen from Proto-Indo-European Шаблон:PIE (and from Шаблон:IPA through Verner's law) further changed with various sorts:

  • After *n it was preserved as a labiovelar stop *gw, but later changed to a plain velar *g in West Germanic.
  • Following vowels, it seems to have become *w, presumably through a fricative stage *ɣʷ.
  • Word-initially, the most plausible reflex is labiovelar stop *gʷ at first, but the further development is unclear. In that position, it became either *w, *g or *b during late Proto-Germanic.
  • The regular reflex next to *u would likely have been *g, due to the labial element before a labial vowel being lost in Proto-Indo-European, which continued to act as a surface filter. (See boukólos rule)

Perhaps the usual reflex was *b (as suggested by the connection of bid < *bidjaną and Old Irish guidid), but *w appears in certain cases (possibly through dissimilation when another labial consonant followed?) like warm and wife (provided that the proposed explanations are correct). Proto-Germanic *hw voiced by Verner's law fell together with this sound and developed identically, compare the words for 'she-wolf': from Middle High German wülbeШаблон:Citation needed and Old Norse ylgr, one can reconstruct Proto-Germanic nominative singular *wulbī, genitive singular *wulgijōz, from earlier *wulgwī, *wulgwijōz.[2]Шаблон:Failed verification

Examples

Further changes following Grimm's law, as well as sound changes in other Indo-European languages, can occasionally obscure the law's effects. The most illustrative examples are used here.

Proto-Indo-European Meaning Non-Germanic (unshifted) cognates Change Proto-Germanic Germanic (shifted) examples
Шаблон:PIE "foot" Ancient Greek: πούς, ποδός (poús, podós), Latin: pēs, pedis, Sanskrit: pāda, Russian: под (pod) "under; floor", Lithuanian: pėda, Latvian: pēda, Persian: Шаблон:Lang (pa), Serbo-Croatian: "pod" ("under; floor") and "peta" as in "heel" *p > f Шаблон:IPA *fōts English: foot, West Frisian: foet, German: Fuß, Gothic: fōtus, Icelandic, Faroese: fótur, Danish: fod, Norwegian, Swedish: fot
Шаблон:PIE "three" Ancient Greek: τρεῖς (treîs), Latin: trēs, Welsh: tri, Sanskrit: tri, Russian: три (tri), Serbo-Croatian: три̑ (trȋ), Lithuanian: trỹs, Polish: trzy, Albanian: tre *t > þ Шаблон:IPA *þrīz English: three, Old Frisian: thrē, Old Saxon: thrīe, Gothic: þreis, Icelandic: þrír
Шаблон:PIE "dog" Ancient Greek: κύων (kýōn), Latin: canis, Sanskrit: śván, Welsh: ci (pl. cŵn), Serbo-Croatian: kuče, Persian: Шаблон:Lang (sag), Russian: собака (sobaka) *k > h Шаблон:IPA *hundaz English: hound, Dutch: hond, German: Hund, Gothic: hunds, Icelandic, Faroese: hundur, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish: hund
Шаблон:PIE "what" Latin: quod, Irish: cad, Sanskrit: kád, Russian: как (kak), Lithuanian: kas, Serbo-Croatian (Torlakian dialect): кvo (kvo), Serbo-Croatian (Kajkavian dialect): кај (kaj) *Шаблон:PIE > hw Шаблон:IPA *hwat English: what, Gothic: Шаблон:Transliteration ("hwa"), Icelandic: hvað, Faroese: hvat, Danish: hvad, Norwegian: hva
Шаблон:PIE "apple" Lithuanian: obuolỹs, Gaulish abalom, Serbo-Croatian: ја̏бука (jȁbuka) *b > p Шаблон:IPA *aplaz English: apple, West Frisian: apel, Dutch: appel, Icelandic: epli, Swedish: äpple, Crimean Gothic apel
Шаблон:PIE "ten" Latin: decem, Greek: δέκα (déka), Irish: deich, Sanskrit: daśan, Russian: десять (desjat'), Welsh: deg, Lithuanian: dešimt, Polish: dziesięć *d > t Шаблон:IPA *tehun English: ten, Dutch: tien, Gothic: taíhun, Icelandic: tíu, Faroese: tíggju, Danish, Norwegian: ti, Swedish: tio
Шаблон:PIE "cold" Latin: gelū, Greek: γελανδρός (gelandrós), Lithuanian: gelmenis, gelumà *g > k Шаблон:IPA *kaldaz English: cold, West Frisian: kâld, Dutch: koud, German: kalt, Icelandic, Faroese: kaldur, Danish: kold, Norwegian: kald, Swedish: kall
Шаблон:PIE "alive" Lithuanian: gyvas, Russian: живой (živoj), Sanskrit: jīvá-, Serbo-Croatian: жив (živ), Polish: żywy *Шаблон:PIE > kw Шаблон:IPA *kwi(k)waz English: quick, West Frisian: kwik, kwyk, Dutch: kwiek, German: keck, Gothic: qius, Icelandic, Faroese: kvikur, Danish: kvik, Swedish: kvick, Norwegian kvikk
Шаблон:PIE "brother" Sanskrit: bhrātṛ, Ancient Greek: φρατήρ (phrātēr) ("member of a brotherhood"), Latin: frāter, Russian, Serbo-Croatian: брат (brat), Lithuanian: brolis, Polish: brat, Old Church Slavonic: братръ (bratr'), Old Welsh: braut, Latvian: brālis, Persian: Шаблон:Lang (barádar) *Шаблон:PIE > b Шаблон:IPA *brōþēr English: brother, West Frisian, Dutch: broeder, German: Bruder, Gothic: broþar, Icelandic, Faroese: bróðir, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish: broder
Шаблон:PIE "honey" Sanskrit: mádhu, Homeric Greek: μέθυ (methu), Lithuanian: medus, Russian: мёд (mjod), Serbo-Croatian: мед (med), Polish: miód *Шаблон:PIE > d Шаблон:IPA *meduz English: mead, East Frisian: meede, Dutch: mede, German: Met, Danish, Norwegian: mjød, Icelandic: mjöður , Swedish: mjöd
Шаблон:PIE "walk, step" Sanskrit: stighnoti, Ancient Greek: στείχειν (steíkhein) *Шаблон:PIE > g Шаблон:IPA *stīganą Old English: stīgan, Dutch: stijgen, German: steigen, Icelandic, Faroese: stíga, Danish, Norwegian: stige, Gothic steigan (all meaning "ascend, climb")
Шаблон:PIE "goose" Latin: anser < *hanser, Ancient Greek: χήν (chēn), Sanskrit: hamsa ("swan"), Lithuanian: žąsis (older žansis), Russian: гусь (gus'), Persian: Шаблон:Lang (ğaz), Serbo-Croatian: гуска (guska), Polish: gęś *Шаблон:PIE > g Шаблон:IPA *gans- English: goose, West Frisian: goes, guos, Dutch: gans, German: Gans, Icelandic: gæs, Faroese: gás, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish: gås
Шаблон:PIE "sing" Homeric Greek: Шаблон:Lang (omphē) "voice" *Шаблон:PIE > gw Шаблон:IPA
(After n) 		*singwaną English: sing, West Frisian: sjonge, Dutch: zingen, German: singen, Gothic: siggwan, Old Icelandic: syngva, syngja, Icelandic, Faroese: syngja, Swedish: sjunga, Danish: synge, sjunge

This process appears strikingly regular. Each phase involves one single change which applies equally to the labials (Шаблон:PIE) and their equivalent dentals (Шаблон:PIE), velars (Шаблон:PIE) and rounded velars (Шаблон:PIE). The first phase left the phoneme repertoire of the language without voiceless stops, the second phase filled this gap, but created a new one, and so on until the chain had run its course.

Behaviour in consonant clusters

When two obstruents occurred in a pair, the first was changed according to Grimm's law, if possible, while the second was not. If either of the two was voiceless, the whole cluster was devoiced, and the first obstruent also lost its labialisation, if it was present.

Most examples of this occurred with obstruents preceded by *s (resulting in *sp, *st, *sk, *skʷ), or obstruents followed by *t (giving *ft, *ss, *ht, *ht) or *s (giving *fs, *ss, *hs, *hs). The latter change was frequent in suffixes, and became a phonotactic restriction known as the Germanic spirant law. This rule remained productive throughout the Proto-Germanic period. The cluster *tt became *ss (as in many Indo-European daughter languages), but this was often restored analogically to *st later on.

Examples with preceding *s:

Non-Germanic examples Change Germanic examples
Latin: spuere, Lithuanian: spjáuti *sp English: spew, West Frisian: spije, Dutch: spuwen, German: speien, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish: spy, Icelandic: spýja, Faroese: spýggja, Gothic: speiwan
Latin: stāre, Irish: stad, Sanskrit: sta, Russian: стать (stat'), Lithuanian: stoti, Persian: Шаблон:Lang (istâdan) *st English: stand, Icelandic, Faroese, Norwegian: standa, Gothic: standan; West Frisian: stean, Dutch: staan, German: stehen, Danish, Swedish: stå
Lithuanian: skurdus *sk English: short, Old High German: scurz, Icelandic: skorta
Irish: scéal *Шаблон:PIE English: scold, Icelandic: skáld, Norwegian: skald; West Frisian: skelle, Dutch: schelden, German: schelten

Examples with following *t:

Non-Germanic examples Change Germanic examples
Ancient Greek: κλέπτης (kleptēs), Old Prussian: au-klipts "hidden" *pt→ft Gothic: hliftus "thief"
Latin: atta, Greek: ἄττα (átta) *tt→tt Old High German: atto, Gothic: atta "father"
Ancient Greek: ὀκτώ (oktō), Irish: ocht, Latin: octō *kt→ht English: eight, West Frisian, Dutch, German: acht, Gothic: ahtáu, Icelandic: átta
Irish: anocht, Latin: nox, noct-, Greek: νύξ, νυκτ- (núks, nukt-), Sanskrit: नक्तम् (naktam), Lithuanian: naktis, Hittite (genitive): nekuz (pronounced Шаблон:IPA) *Шаблон:PIE→ht English: night, West Frisian, Dutch, German: Nacht, Gothic: nahts, Icelandic: nótt
  • Icelandic nótt Шаблон:IPA-is comes from Old Norse nǫ́tt, nátt, from Proto-Germanic *naht-. The Germanic *ht regularly becomes Old Norse tt, and this then becomes preaspirated in Icelandic. Thus, the Шаблон:IPA of the modern Icelandic form is not Germanic Шаблон:IPA's direct descendant.[3] The same ancestry holds for Icelandic átta's Шаблон:IPA as well.[4]

Correspondences to PIE

The Germanic "sound laws", combined with regular changes reconstructed for other Indo-European languages, allow one to define the expected sound correspondences between different branches of the family. For example, Germanic (word-initial) *b- corresponds regularly to Latin *f-, Greek Шаблон:PIE, Sanskrit Шаблон:PIE, Slavic, Baltic or Celtic b-, etc., while Germanic *f- corresponds to Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, Slavic and Baltic p- and to zero (no initial consonant) in Celtic. The former set goes back to PIE *Шаблон:PIE (faithfully reflected in Sanskrit and modified in various ways elsewhere), and the latter set to PIE *p- (shifted in Germanic, lost in Celtic, but preserved in the other groups mentioned here).

One of the more conspicuous present surface correspondences is the English digraph wh and the corresponding Latin and Romance digraph qu, notably found in interrogative words (wh-words) such as the five Ws. These both come from Шаблон:PIE. The present pronunciations have further changed, like many English varieties reducing the wh-cluster, though the spellings reflect the history more; see Interrogative word: Etymology for details.

See also

References

Шаблон:Reflist

External links

Шаблон:Germanic languages Шаблон:Brothers Grimm

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  1. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  2. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  3. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  4. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
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