Английская Википедия:Guallatiri

Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Infobox mountain Guallatiri is a Шаблон:Convert or Шаблон:Convert high volcano in Chile. It is located southwest of the Nevados de Quimsachata volcanic group; some sources classify Guallatiri as a member. Guallatiri is a stratovolcano with numerous fumaroles around the summit. The summit may be a lava dome or volcanic plug, while the lower flanks of the volcano are covered by lava flows and lava domes. The volcano's eruptions have produced mostly dacite along with andesite and rhyolite. Past glaciation has left moraines on Guallatiri.

A large eruption took place approximately 2,600 years ago. Guallatiri has been active in historical times with a number of eruptions, the latest in 1960. Fumarolic and seismic activity is ongoing and has resulted in the deposition of sulfur and other minerals on the volcano. The volcano is covered by an ice cap above Шаблон:Convert elevation that has shrunk and fragmented during the course of the 20th and 21st centuries. Guallatiri, along with several other volcanoes, is part of Lauca National Park and is monitored by the Chilean National Geology and Mining Service (SERNAGEOMIN).

Name and ascents

The term Guallatiri is derived from Шаблон:Lang, which means "abundance of the Andean goose" in Aymara,Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Sfn referring to their frequent occurrence in the area.Шаблон:Sfn Other names are Шаблон:Lang (also an Aymara word),Шаблон:Sfn Huallatiri, HuallatireШаблон:Sfn and Guallatire.Шаблон:Sfn It was first climbed in 1926 by the geologist Шаблон:Interlanguage link.Шаблон:Sfn The volcano is considered to be easy to ascend (rated F on the French Climb grading by John Biggar) but toxic gases constitute a hazard in the summit region.Шаблон:Sfn

Geography and geomorphology

The volcano lies in the Putre municipality,Шаблон:Sfn Arica y Parinacota Region.Шаблон:Efn It is located south of Lake Chungará Шаблон:Sfn and Шаблон:Convert west of Cerro Capurata.Шаблон:Sfn The latter is part of the Nevados de Quimsachata volcano chain which includes Umurata, Acotango and Capurata;Шаблон:Sfn sometimes Guallatiri is considered to be part of the Nevados de Quimsachata.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Sfn The older Umurata and Acotango volcanoes are heavily eroded;Шаблон:Sfn Capurata is better preserved.Шаблон:Sfn Guallatiri is part of the larger Western Cordillera,Шаблон:Sfn the western boundary of the Altiplano high plateau.Шаблон:Sfn

The small town of Guallatiri is Шаблон:Convert southwest of the volcano and is the settlement closest to it;Шаблон:Sfn the town has a 17th-century church and a refuge of the National Forest Corporation.Шаблон:Sfn Other nearby towns include Ancuta, Carbonire and Churiguaya. Шаблон:As of each had a population of less than 25 people.Шаблон:Sfn The provincial capital Putre is Шаблон:Convert north of the volcano, and Шаблон:Convert farther west, on the Pacific coast, is Arica.Шаблон:Sfn Economic activity in the area includes the Tambo Quemado border crossing, agriculture, animal husbandry, tourism and mountaineering, including ascents to the summit of Guallatiri.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Sfn There are no known archeological sites on the summit of Guallatiri, unlike several other mountains in the region. Possible reasons are the continuous ice cover and the constant volcanic activity.Шаблон:Sfn The frontier between Bolivia and Chile runs along the Nevados de Quimsachata northeast of Guallatiri,Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Sfn not far from the volcano.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Efn The volcano is remote and thus poorly known.Шаблон:Sfn

The volcano

Guallatiri is Шаблон:Convert Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Sfn or Шаблон:Convert high;Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Sfn claims of even higher elevations appeared in pastШаблон:Sfn and some recent publications.Шаблон:Sfn It is a composite volcano Шаблон:Sfn or stratovolcano with a symmetric cone surmounted by a lava dome, lava complexШаблон:Sfn or volcanic plug Шаблон:Sfn and a vent just south of it.Шаблон:Sfn

Lava domes, lava flows,Шаблон:Sfn tephra Шаблон:Efn and volcanic ash make up the mountain.Шаблон:Sfn Guallatiri rises about Шаблон:Convert above the surrounding terrainШаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Efn and covers an area of about Шаблон:Convert; the total volume is about Шаблон:Convert.Шаблон:Sfn Thick lava flows emanate in all directionsШаблон:Sfn but are primarily noted on the northern and western flanks.Шаблон:Sfn The flows reach thicknesses of Шаблон:Convert Шаблон:Sfn and lengths of Шаблон:Convert.Шаблон:Sfn The lava flows have a lobate appearance even when they are heavily eroded, and display levees, ogives, polygonal cracks and blocky surfaces. Older flows have been eroded into hills. Block-and-ash flows form fans on the southern and southwestern flanks. Tephra deposits are mainly located on the eastern and southern side of Guallatiri.Шаблон:Sfn Tuffs and pyroclastic flow deposits occur both in the summit region and in radial valleys that emanate from Guallatiri,Шаблон:Sfn although some of the deposits southwest of the volcano have been reinterpreted as being reworked sediments.Шаблон:Sfn Apart from volcanic rocks, glacial deposits cover large parts of the volcano,Шаблон:Sfn and there are traces of mass failures.Шаблон:Sfn

On the southern flank, there are two lava domes named Domo Tinto and Domo Sur;Шаблон:Sfn other than these Guallatiri has no lateral vents.Шаблон:Sfn Domo Tinto is Шаблон:Convert wide and Шаблон:Convert high while Domo Sur (Шаблон:Convert southwest of Domo Tinto) is Шаблон:Convert thick and Шаблон:Convert wide.Шаблон:Sfn Domo Tinto has a hummocky surface and resembles a pancake.Шаблон:Sfn

There are both cold springs and hot springs on Guallatiri, indicating that groundwater interacts with the magmatic system.Шаблон:Sfn One hot spring is located at Chiriguaya on the northwestern foot of Guallatiri,Шаблон:Sfn where temperatures of Шаблон:Convert were measured in bubbling pools,Шаблон:Sfn and sinter deposition takes place.Шаблон:Sfn Several streams run off the mountain; they eventually enter Lake Chungará and the Lauca River.Шаблон:Sfn

Ice

Above Шаблон:Convert Шаблон:Sfn–Шаблон:Convert elevationШаблон:Sfn the volcano is covered with ice.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:As of, an ice cap on Guallatiri covered an area of Шаблон:Convert and had a volume of Шаблон:Convert.Шаблон:Sfn Ice area has been retreating at a rate of Шаблон:Convert (between 1988 and 2017), leading to the breakup of the ice cap into several separate ice bodies.Шаблон:Sfn According to a 2005 study by Rivera et al., heat emitted by fumaroles may have contributed to the enhanced melting of the ice.Шаблон:Sfn

Glacial deposits on Guallatiri cover an area of about Шаблон:Convert above Шаблон:Convert elevation, with lateral moraines reaching lengths of Шаблон:Convert and thicknesses of Шаблон:Convert.Шаблон:Sfn Glaciers reached their maximum extent between 13,500 and 8,900 years ago.Шаблон:Sfn This is unlike the global Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), which peaked between 21,000 and 19,000 years ago.Шаблон:Sfn This is a consequence of the climate in the region, where glacier extent was more sensitive to increased moisture supply than to decreasing temperatures;Шаблон:Sfn presumably the global LGM was too dry to allow glacier formation.Шаблон:Sfn Some glaciers were still present during the Holocene, evidenced by Holocene-age Domo Tinto lava dome which bears traces of glacial erosionШаблон:Sfn and is partially covered by moraines.Шаблон:Sfn

Volcanic units are found both overlyingШаблон:Sfn and underlying glacial depositsШаблон:Sfn such as moraines. Older volcanic rocks bear glacial striations,Шаблон:Sfn and volcanic bombs on the lower flanks may have been transported there by glaciers.Шаблон:Sfn

Geology

Off the western coast of South America, the Nazca Plate subducts beneath the South American Plate at a rate of about Шаблон:Convert. The subduction process is responsible for the volcanism of the Northern Volcanic Zone, Central Volcanic Zone (CVZ) and Southern Volcanic Zone, and has also driven the formation of the Altiplano during the last 25 million years.Шаблон:Sfn

The CVZ is a Шаблон:Convert long chain of volcanoesШаблон:Sfn spanning southern Peru, northern Chile, western Bolivia and northwestern Argentina. It contains about 58 active or potentially active volcanoes,Шаблон:Sfn 33 of which are located within Chile. The most active CVZ volcano is Lascar, which in 1993 produced the largest historical eruption of northern Chile.Шаблон:Sfn

Guallatiri rises above Oligocene to Pliocene age volcanic and sedimentary rocks, which define the Lupica and Lauca Formations.Шаблон:Sfn The Lupica Formation is older and consists mainly of volcanic rocks, while the Lauca Formation is formed by volcanic and sedimentary rocks that were deposited within the basin and in part altered by glaciers.Шаблон:Sfn Archean to Precambrian-Paleozoic rocks make up the basement.Шаблон:Sfn There is evidence that the terrain was tectonically active during the Quaternary.Шаблон:Sfn

Composition

The composition of Guallatiri's rocks ranges from andesite over dacite to rhyolite,Шаблон:Sfn with dacites being predominant.Шаблон:Sfn The summit dome is formed by dacite Шаблон:Sfn and most outcrops are trachyandesite and trachydacite.Шаблон:Sfn The rocks define a potassium-rich calc-alkaline suite and contain amphibole, apatite, biotite, clinopyroxene, olivine and plagioclase phenocrysts, similar to other volcanoes in the region.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Sfn A single lava bomb made out of obsidian has been found.Шаблон:Sfn Mafic Шаблон:Efn rock enclaves have been observed in Domo Tinto rocks, which indicate that mafic magmas were injected into the magma chamber and mixed with already present magma.Шаблон:Sfn Fractional crystallization and magma mixing processes gave rise to Guallatiri's magmas.Шаблон:Sfn

Fumaroles have deposited minerals such as anhydrite, baryte, cristobalite, gypsum, quartz, sassolite and sulfur. Less common are galena, orpiment and pyrite.Шаблон:Sfn Sulfur deposits have yellow, orange or red colours and are sometimes accompanied by arsenic-sulfur compoundsШаблон:Sfn that also contain iodine, mercury, selenium and tellurium.Шаблон:Sfn Sulfur deposits occur on Guallatiri's southern flank;Шаблон:Sfn according to the first Panamerican Congress on Mine Engineering and Geology, in 1942 the volcano had about Шаблон:Convert of sulfur ore with a grade of about 55% sulfur.Шаблон:Sfn The volcano may be an important cause of arsenic pollution in the region.Шаблон:Sfn

Flora, fauna and climate

Файл:Guallatire echando humito - panoramio.jpg

Landscape under Guallatiri, with the fumaroles visible

The volcano is inside the Lauca National Park Шаблон:Sfn and the wetlands (Шаблон:Lang-es) in the area of Guallatiri have regional importance.Шаблон:Sfn Vegetation there include Arenaria rivularis, Calandrinia compacta, Deyeuxia curvula, Distichlis humilis, Lobelia oligophylla and Oxychloe andina. Animal species include birds such as the Andean flamingo, Andean gull, Andean goose, buff-winged cinclodes, Chilean flamingo, condor, giant coot, James's flamingo, mountain parakeet, Puna ibis, Puna tinamou and torrent duck. Among the mammals are the alpaca, Altiplano chinchilla mouse, Andean swamp rat, lesser grison, llama, mountain degu, Osgood's leaf-eared mouse, short-tailed chinchilla and vicuña.Шаблон:Sfn Woodlands formed by the tree Polylepis tarapacana occur on Guallatiri; this tree forms the world's highest woodlands.Шаблон:Sfn The upper parts of the mountain are covered with rocks and pioneer vegetation to about Шаблон:Convert elevation.Шаблон:Sfn

The region has a tundra climate. Most precipitation falls during the summer months, amounting to about Шаблон:Convert per year, averaged between 1997 and 2017.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Efn Moisture mainly originates in the Atlantic Ocean and the Amazon, especially during cold events of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation when moisture supply increases.Шаблон:Sfn Tree ring chronologies from Polylepis tarapacana trees growing at Guallatiri have been used for climate reconstructions.Шаблон:Sfn

Eruptive history

Файл:Guallatiri geological map.jpg

Geological map of Guallatiri

Volcanic activity at Guallatiri commenced either about 710,000Шаблон:Sfn or 262,000–130,000 years agoШаблон:Sfn and the volcano subsequently grew during the Pleistocene Шаблон:Efn and Holocene.Шаблон:Efn Шаблон:Sfn Total magma supply at Guallatiri amounts to Шаблон:Convert, less than at Parinacota but greater than at Lascar.Шаблон:Sfn

Jorquera et al. in 2019 described a two-stage growth of the volcano. Initially, the "Guallatiri I" stage grew in the form of andesitic and dacitic lava flows as well as heavily eroded pyroclastic deposits, which crop out around the volcano. Then the dacitic "Guallatiri II" developed in close proximity to the central vent; unlike the "Guallatiri I" units it has not been eroded by glaciation and flows still display flow structures.Шаблон:Sfn The central sector of the volcano is mainly of Holocene age while the peripheral parts date to the Pleistocene.Шаблон:Sfn In 2021, Sepúlveda et al. envisaged sixШаблон:Efn separate stages,Шаблон:Sfn rocks from the first four crop out mainly at the periphery of the volcano and the last two in its central sector. All these units were erupted by the central vent of Guallatiri.Шаблон:Sfn Some lava flows are well preserved, while others have been glaciated.Шаблон:Sfn

Large eruptions similar to the 1993 eruption of Lascar may have occurred at Guallatiri.Шаблон:Sfn The largest Holocene event at the volcano was a Plinian Шаблон:Efn or sub-Plinian Шаблон:Efn eruption that deposited tephra and pumice southwest of the volcano, reaching thicknesses of Шаблон:Convert at Шаблон:Convert distance,Шаблон:Sfn approximately 2,600 years ago.Шаблон:Sfn Non-explosive eruptions also took place, such as the Domo Tinto eruption 5,000 ± 3,000 years ago.Шаблон:Sfn The eruption emplaced lobes of lava over a flat surface.Шаблон:Sfn

Pyroclastic flow deposits extend Шаблон:Convert from Guallatiri. Radiocarbon dating has yielded ages ranging between 6,255 ± 41 and 140 ± 30 years Before Present.Шаблон:Sfn These flows are unrelated to the lava domes, which show no evidence of collapses that could have formed pyroclastic flows.Шаблон:Sfn Lahar deposits are found on the southern flanks of the volcano and do not exceed Шаблон:Convert thickness.Шаблон:Sfn They form when volcanic material interacts with water, produced either by the melting of ice or through intense rainfall.Шаблон:Sfn Traces of Holocene-age lahars from Guallatiri have been found in river valleys.Шаблон:Sfn

Historical and seismic activity

Guallatiri is the second-most active volcano (after Lascar) in northern Chile. Since the 19th century, numerous small explosive eruptions Шаблон:Sfn have produced thin tephra layers.Шаблон:Sfn The eruption history of Guallatiri is little knownШаблон:Sfn and historical eruptions are poorly documented.Шаблон:Sfn Eruptions with a volcanic explosivity index Шаблон:Efn of 2 took place in 1825 ± 25, 1913, July 1959 and December 1960. A further uncertain eruption took place in 1908Шаблон:Sfn and additional poorly documented eruptions are reported from 1862, 1864, 1870, 1902, 1904 and 1987.Шаблон:Sfn Radiocarbon dating has yielded evidence of at least one eruption during the past 200 years.Шаблон:Sfn

Increased steam emission was observed in December 1985 and initially attributed to Acotango volcano, before it was linked to Guallatiri;Шаблон:Sfn it may have been an eruption of the latter.Шаблон:Sfn In May 2015 the Chilean National Geology and Mining Service (SERNAGEOMIN) raised the volcano alert level when seismic activity increased and a Шаблон:Convert high plume appeared over the volcano,Шаблон:Sfn only to lower it again in July when activity decreased.Шаблон:Sfn

Shallow earthquakes Шаблон:Sfn and sporadic seismic swarms have been recorded at Guallatiri;Шаблон:Sfn one such swarm was induced by the 2001 Peru earthquake.Шаблон:Sfn Satellite imaging has not shown any evidence of ongoing deformation of the volcanic structure.Шаблон:Sfn

Fumarolic activity

Guallatiri features fumaroles and solfataras,Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Sfn and mud pools have also been reported.Шаблон:Sfn There are two main areas, one on the western flank Шаблон:Convert below the summit and another on the south-southwestern flank. Fumaroles form alignments, and a Шаблон:Convert long fracture lies in the southern area.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Sfn Some sources also identify a third area on the upper western flank.Шаблон:Sfn The vents of individual fumaroles sometimes form Шаблон:Convert wide and Шаблон:Convert high cones, and there are small explosion craters reaching widths of Шаблон:Convert in the summit region. Pahoehoe-like flows up to Шаблон:Convert long have been formed by liquid sulfur.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Sfn Other minerals deposited by the fumaroles are sulfates such as baryte and sulfides, including cinnabar, antimony sulfides and arsenic sulfides.Шаблон:Sfn

The temperatures of the fumaroles range between Шаблон:Convert. Guallatiri produces gases consisting of carbon dioxide and water vapour, with hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen sulfide, methane and sulfur dioxide Шаблон:Efn as additional components. They appear to originate from a hydrothermal system where intense rock-gas interaction takes place. The water originates in part from the magma and in part from precipitation.Шаблон:Sfn Different degrees of interaction with precipitation water may explain why the south-southwestern flank fumarole gases have a different composition than these released in the summit region.Шаблон:Sfn The fumarolic activity has produced intense hydrothermal alteration of Guallatiri's rocksШаблон:Sfn east-northeast of the summit and at a lower elevation northwest of it.Шаблон:Sfn

Fumarole plume

Fumarole clouds, derived mainly from the summit fumarole,Шаблон:Sfn are visible for more than Шаблон:Convert Шаблон:Sfn and from infrared satellite images.Шаблон:Sfn The fumarole cloud influences the perception of volcanic activity by the local population.Шаблон:Sfn

Puffing behaviour was noted in 1996Шаблон:Sfn and emissions every half-hour in November 1987, which gave rise to yellow-white plumes up to Шаблон:Convert high.Шаблон:Sfn Jet-like noises are heard from the fumaroles.Шаблон:Sfn According to a report by mountaineers in 1966, fire emanated from the fumarole vents.Шаблон:Sfn

Hazards and monitoring

Future eruptions may consist of the emission of lava domes or lava flows, preceded by explosive activity that could impact the settlements of Ancuta and Guallatiri on the southern and western flanks. Large explosive eruptions could deposit pyroclastics over hundreds of kilometres, with the direction depending on the wind at the time of the eruption.Шаблон:Sfn Lahars would mainly impact the western and southwestern sectors of the volcano, as the snow cover is concentrated there. Lava flows would also primarily impact this sector of the volcano. Pyroclastic flows may impact areas within Шаблон:Convert of Guallatiri, including the settlements Ancuta and Guallatiri.Шаблон:Sfn Apart from Ancuta and Guallatiri in Chile, the volcano may threaten towns in BoliviaШаблон:Sfn and ash clouds from Guallatiri could impact airports in the wider region as far as Paraguay.Шаблон:Sfn The vulnerability of the local population reflects both widespread poverty and marginalization, and the low population density.Шаблон:Sfn Significant eruptions are expected to reoccur on century timescales.Шаблон:Sfn

Guallatiri is in the second category in the Chilean scale of dangerous volcanoesШаблон:Sfn and is the 30th most dangerous in the country. In 2013, the Southern Andean Volcano Observatory began to monitor Guallatiri by video, measurements of seismic activity and deformations of the volcanic structure.Шаблон:Sfn Volcano hazard maps have been published.Шаблон:Sfn

Mythology and religious importance

Guallatiri was considered to be an Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang, a protective mountain spirit.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Sfn The mountain was and still is worshipped by local inhabitants, and the church in the town of Guallatiri is constructed so that it points to the volcano.Шаблон:Sfn In the past, the Aymara community of Guallatire used to celebrate rituals at the foothills of the volcano every January 1.Шаблон:Sfn They regarded Guallatiri, which they called Qapurata, to be a family consisting of a wife (the eastern María Qapurata), a husband (the western Pedro Qapurata) and a daughter (the middle Elena Qapurata).Шаблон:Sfn

In the oral tradition of Chipaya, cold winds called Шаблон:Lang blow from the Pacific Ocean to the Altiplano and towards Guallatiri.Шаблон:Sfn The volcano there is linked with Hell.Шаблон:Sfn The Chipaya believed that the waters of the Lauca River originate on Guallatiri and come directly from hell.Шаблон:Sfn

Notes

Шаблон:Notelist

References

Шаблон:Reflist

Sources

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Шаблон:Refend

Шаблон:Andean volcanoes

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