Английская Википедия:Guarani language
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:About Шаблон:Distinguish Шаблон:Cleanup lang Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Infobox language
Guaraní (Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:Respell),[1] specifically the primary variety known as Paraguayan Guarani (Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-gn "the people's language"), is a South American language that belongs to the Tupi–Guarani branch[2] of the Tupian language family. It is one of the official languages of Paraguay (along with Spanish), where it is spoken by the majority of the population, and where half of the rural population are monolingual speakers of the language.[3][4]
Variants of the language are spoken by communities in neighboring countries including parts of northeastern Argentina, southeastern Bolivia and southwestern Brazil, and is a second official language of the Argentine province of Corrientes since 2004.[5][6] Guarani is also one of the three official languages of Mercosur, alongside Spanish and Portuguese.[7]
Guarani is the most widely spoken American language and remains commonly used among the Paraguayan people and neighboring communities. This is unique among American languages; language shift towards European colonial languages (in this case, the other official language of Spanish) has otherwise been a nearly universal phenomenon in the Western Hemisphere, but Paraguayans have maintained their traditional language while also adopting Spanish.
Jesuit priest Antonio Ruiz de Montoya, who in 1639 published the first written grammar of Guarani in a book called Шаблон:Lang (Treasure/Thesaurus of the Guarani Language)Шаблон:Efn, described it as a language "so copious and elegant that it can compete with the most famous [of languages]".[8]
The name "Guarani" is generally used for the official language of Paraguay. However, this is part of a dialect chain, most of whose components are also often called Guarani.
History
While Guarani, in its Classical form, was the only language spoken in the expansive missionary territories, Paraguayan Guaraní has its roots outside of the Jesuit Reductions.
Modern scholarship has shown that Guarani was always the primary language of colonial Paraguay, both inside and outside the reductions. Following the expulsion of the Jesuits in the 18th century, the residents of the reductions gradually migrated north and west towards Asunción, a demographic shift that brought about a decidedly one-sided shift away from the Jesuit dialect that the missionaries had curated in the southern and eastern territories of the colony.[9][10]
By and large, the Guaraní of the Jesuits shied away from direct phonological loans from Spanish. Instead, the missionaries relied on the agglutinative nature of the language to formulate new precise translations or calque terms from Guaraní morphemes. This process often led the Jesuits to employ complicated, highly synthetic terms to convey European concepts.[11] By contrast, the Guarani spoken outside of the missions was characterized by a free, unregulated flow of Hispanicisms; frequently, Spanish words and phrases were simply incorporated into Guarani with minimal phonological adaptation.
A good example of that phenomenon is found in the word "communion". The Jesuits, using their agglutinative strategy, rendered this word "Шаблон:Lang", a calque based on the word "Шаблон:Lang", meaning God.[12] In modern Paraguayan Guaraní, the same word is rendered "Шаблон:Lang".[13]
Following the out-migration from the reductions, these two distinct dialects of Guarani came into extensive contact for the first time. The vast majority of speakers abandoned the less colloquial, highly regulated Jesuit variant in favor of the variety that evolved from actual use by speakers in Paraguay.[14] This contemporary form of spoken Guaraní is known as Jopará, meaning "mixture" in Guarani.
Political status
Шаблон:See also Widely spoken, Paraguayan Guaraní has nevertheless been repressed by Paraguayan governments throughout most of its history since independence. It was prohibited in state schools for over 100 years. However, populists often used pride in the language to excite nationalistic fervor and promote a narrative of social unity.
During the autocratic regime of Alfredo Stroessner, his Colorado Party used the language to appeal to common Paraguayans although Stroessner himself never gave an address in Guaraní.[15] Upon the advent of Paraguayan democracy in 1992, Guarani was established in the new constitution as a language equal to Spanish.[4]
Jopará, the mixture of Spanish and Guaraní, is spoken by an estimated 90% of the population of Paraguay. Code-switching between the two languages takes place on a spectrum in which more Spanish is used for official and business-related matters, and more Guarani is used in art and in everyday life.[16]
Guarani is also an official language of Bolivia and of Corrientes Province in Argentina.
Writing system
Guarani became a written language relatively recently. Its modern alphabet is basically a subset of the Latin script (with "J", "K" and "Y" but not "W"), complemented with two diacritics and six digraphs. Its orthography is largely phonemic, with letter values mostly similar to those of Spanish. The tilde is used with many letters that are considered part of the alphabet. In the case of Шаблон:Lang, it differentiates the palatal nasal from the alveolar nasal (as in Spanish), whereas it marks stressed nasalisation when used over a vowel (as in Portuguese): Шаблон:Lang. (Nasal vowels have been written with several other diacritics: Шаблон:Lang.) The tilde also marks nasality in the case of Шаблон:Lang, used to represent the nasalized velar approximant by combining the velar approximant Шаблон:Lang with the nasalising tilde. The letter Шаблон:Lang, which is unique to this language, was introduced into the orthography relatively recently during the mid-20th century and there is disagreement over its use. It is not a precomposed character in Unicode, which can cause typographic inconveniences – such as needing to press "delete" twice in some setups – or imperfect rendering when using computers and fonts that do not properly support the complex layout feature of glyph composition.
Only stressed nasal vowels are written as nasal. If an oral vowel is stressed, and it is not the final syllable, it is marked with an acute accent: Шаблон:Lang. That is, stress falls on the vowel marked as nasalized, if any, else on the accent-marked syllable, and if neither appears, then on the final syllable.
For blind people there is also a Guarani Braille.
Phonology
Guarani syllables consist of a consonant plus a vowel or a vowel alone; syllables ending in a consonant or two or more consonants together do not occur. This is represented as (C)V.
In the below table, the IPA value is shown. The orthography is shown in angle brackets below, if different.
Consonants
The voiced consonants have oral allophones (left) before oral vowels, and nasal allophones (right) before nasal vowels. The oral allophones of the voiced stops are prenasalized.
There is also a sequence Шаблон:IPA (written Шаблон:Angbr). A trill Шаблон:IPA (written Шаблон:Angbr), and the consonants Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:IPA (written Шаблон:Angbr) are not native to Guarani, but come from Spanish.
Oral Шаблон:IPA is often pronounced Шаблон:IPA, depending on the dialect, but the nasal allophone is always Шаблон:IPA.
The dorsal fricative is in free variation between Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA.
Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr are approximants, not fricatives, but are sometimes transcribed Шаблон:IPA, as is conventional for Spanish. Шаблон:Angbr is also transcribed Шаблон:IPA, which is essentially identical to Шаблон:IPA.
All syllables are open, viz. CV or V, ending in a vowel.
Glottal stop
The glottal stop, called Шаблон:Lang in Guarani, is only written between vowels, but occurs phonetically before vowel-initial words. Because of this, some words have several glottal stops near each other that consequently undergo a number of different dissimilation techniques. For example, "I drink water" Шаблон:Lang is pronounced Шаблон:Lang. This suggests that irregularity in verb forms derives from regular sound change processes in the history of Guarani. There also seems to be some degree of variation between how much the glottal stop is dropped (for example Шаблон:Lang for "I bring"). It is possible that word-internal glottal stops may have been retained from fossilized compounds where the second component was a vowel-initial (and therefore glottal stop–initial) root.[18]
Vowels
Шаблон:IPA correspond more or less to the Spanish and IPA equivalents, although sometimes the open-mid allophones Шаблон:IPAblink, Шаблон:IPAblink are used more frequently. The grapheme Шаблон:Angbr represents the vowel Шаблон:IPAslink (as in Polish). Considering nasality, the vowel system is perfectly symmetrical, each oral vowel having its nasal counterpart (most systems with nasals have fewer nasals than orals).
Nasal harmony
Guarani displays an unusual degree of nasal harmony. A nasal syllable consists of a nasal vowel, and if the consonant is voiced, it takes its nasal allophone. If a stressed syllable is nasal, the nasality spreads in both directions until it bumps up against a stressed syllable that is oral. This includes affixes, postpositions, and compounding. Voiceless consonants do not have nasal allophones, but they do not interrupt the spread of nasality.
For example,
However, a second stressed syllable, with an oral vowel, will not become nasalized:
That is, for a word with a single stressed vowel, all voiced segments will be either oral or nasal, while voiceless consonants are unaffected, as in oral Шаблон:IPA vs nasal Шаблон:IPA.
Grammar
Guaraní is a highly agglutinative language, often classified as polysynthetic. It is a fluid-S type active language, and it has been classified as a 6th class language in Milewski's typology. It uses subject–verb–object (SVO) word order usually, but object–verb when the subject is not specified.[20]
The language lacks gender and has no native definite article but, due to influence from Spanish, Шаблон:Lang is used as a definite article for singular reference and Шаблон:Lang for plural reference. These are not found in Classical Guarani (Guaraniete).
Nouns
Guarani exhibits nominal tense: past, expressed with Шаблон:Lang, and future, expressed with Шаблон:Lang. For example, Шаблон:Lang translates to "ex-president" while Шаблон:Lang translates to "president-elect." The past morpheme Шаблон:Lang is often translated as "ex-", "former", "abandoned", "what was once", or "one-time". These morphemes can even be combined to express the idea of something that was going to be but did not end up happening. So for example, Шаблон:Lang is "a person who studied to be a priest but didn't actually finish", or rather, "the ex-future priest". Some nouns use Шаблон:Lang instead of Шаблон:Lang and others use Шаблон:Lang instead of Шаблон:Lang.[21]
Pronouns
Guarani distinguishes between inclusive and exclusive pronouns of the first person plural.
| singular | plural | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st person | inclusive | che | ñande |
| exclusive | ore | ||
| 2nd person | nde | peẽ | |
| 3rd person | haШаблон:Hamzae | haШаблон:Hamzaekuéra/ hikuáiШаблон:Efn-lr | |
Reflexive pronoun: Шаблон:Lang: Шаблон:Lang ("I look"), Шаблон:Lang ("I look at myself")
Conjugation
Guarani stems can be divided into a number of conjugation classes, which are called Шаблон:Lang (with the subclass Шаблон:Lang) and Шаблон:Lang. The names for these classes stem from the names of the prefixes for 1st and 2nd person singular.
The Шаблон:Lang conjugation is used to convey that the participant is actively involved, whereas the Шаблон:Lang conjugation is used to convey that the participant is the undergoer. However, the Шаблон:Lang conjugation is also used if an intransitive verb expresses an event as opposed to a state, for example Шаблон:Lang 'die', and even with a verb such as Шаблон:Lang 'sleep'. In addition, all borrowed Spanish verbs are adopted as Шаблон:Lang as opposed to borrowed adjectives, which take Шаблон:Lang.[22] Intransitive verbs can take either conjugation, transitive verbs normally take Шаблон:Lang, but can take Шаблон:Lang for habitual readings. Nouns can also be conjugated, but only as Шаблон:Lang. This conveys a predicative possessive reading.[23]
Furthermore, the conjugations vary slightly according to the stem being oral or nasal.
| pronoun | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 'walk' (oral) | 'speak' (nasal) | 'use' | 'be big' | |
| che | a-guata | a-ñeШаблон:Hamzaẽ | ai-puru | che-tuicha |
| ñande | ja-guata | ña-ñeШаблон:Hamzaẽ | jai-puru | ñande-tuicha |
| ore | ro-guata | ro-ñeШаблон:Hamzaẽ | roi-puru | ore-tuicha |
| nde | re-guata | re-ñeШаблон:Hamzaẽ | rei-puru | nde-tuicha |
| peẽ | pe-guata | pe-ñeШаблон:Hamzaẽ | pei-puru | pende-tuicha |
| haШаблон:Hamzae(kuéra) | o-guata | o-ñeШаблон:Hamzaẽ | oi-puru | i-tuicha |
Negation
Negation is indicated by a circumfix Шаблон:Lang in Guarani. The preverbal portion of the circumfix is Шаблон:Lang for oral bases and Шаблон:Lang for nasal bases. For 2nd person singular, an epenthetic Шаблон:Lang is inserted before the base, for 1st person plural inclusive, an epenthetic Шаблон:Lang is inserted.
The postverbal portion is Шаблон:Lang for bases ending in Шаблон:Lang, and Шаблон:Lang for all others. However, in spoken Guarani, the Шаблон:Lang portion of the circumfix is frequently omitted for bases ending in Шаблон:Lang.
| Oral verb
Шаблон:Lang (do, make) |
Nasal verb
Шаблон:Lang (roar, snore) |
With ending in "i"
Шаблон:Lang (go up, rise) |
|---|---|---|
| nd-ajapó-i | n-akororõ-i | nd-ajupí-ri |
| nde-rejapó-i | ne-rekororõ-i | nde-rejupí-ri |
| nd-ojapó-i | n-okororõ-i | nd-ojupí-ri |
| nda-jajapó-i | na-ñakororõ-i | nda-jajupí-ri |
| nd-orojapó-i | n-orokororõ-i | nd-orojupí-ri |
| nda-pejapó-i | na-pekororõ-i | nda-pejupí-ri |
| nd-ojapó-i | n-okororõ-i | nd-ojupí-ri |
The negation can be used in all tenses, but for future or irrealis reference, the normal tense marking is replaced by Шаблон:Lang, resulting in Шаблон:Lang-base-Шаблон:Lang as in Шаблон:Lang, "I won't do it".
There are also other negatives, such as: Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang.
Tense and aspect morphemes
- Шаблон:Lang: marks extreme proximity of the action, often translating to "just barely": Шаблон:Lang, "He just barely arrived".[24]Шаблон:Rp
- Шаблон:Lang: marks proximity of the action. Шаблон:Lang, "I just ate" (Шаблон:Lang irregular first person singular form of Шаблон:Lang, "to eat"). It can also be used after a pronoun, as in Шаблон:Lang, "and about what happened to me, I was lucky".
- Шаблон:Lang: indicates a fact that occurred long ago and asserts that it's really truth. Шаблон:Lang, "he/she went missing a long time ago".
- Шаблон:Lang: tells that the speaker was doubtful before but he's sure at the moment he speaks. Шаблон:Lang, "so then you bought a new television after all".
- Шаблон:Lang: expresses the uncertainty of a perfect-aspect fact. Шаблон:Lang, "I think you lived in Asunción for a while". Nevertheless, nowadays this morpheme has lost some of its meaning, having a correspondence with Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang.
The verb form without suffixes at all is a present somewhat aorist: Шаблон:Lang, "that day you got out and you went far".
- Шаблон:Lang: is a future of immediate happening, it's also used as authoritarian imperative. Шаблон:Lang, "he/she'll come back soon".
- Шаблон:Lang: has the meaning of "already". Шаблон:Lang, "I already did it".
These two suffixes can be added together: Шаблон:Lang, "I'm already going".
- Шаблон:Lang: indicates something not imminent or something that must be done for social or moral reasons, in this case corresponding to the German modal verb Шаблон:Lang. Шаблон:Lang, "that must be done".
- Шаблон:Lang: indicates something that probably will happen or something the speaker imagines that is happening. It correlates in a certain way with the subjunctive of Spanish. Шаблон:Lang, "the children are probably coming home now".
- Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang after nasal words: continual action at the moment of speaking, present and pluperfect continuous or emphatic. Шаблон:Lang, "we're making fire"; Шаблон:Lang, "it's ME!".
- Шаблон:Lang: it has a subtle difference with Шаблон:Lang in which Шаблон:Lang indicates not necessarily what's being done at the moment of speaking. Шаблон:Lang, "I'm working (not necessarily now)".
- Шаблон:Lang: indicates proximity immediately before the start of the process. Шаблон:Lang, "I'm near the point at which I will start to kill" or "I'm just about to kill". (A particular sandhi rule is applied here: if the verbs ends in Шаблон:Lang, the suffix changes to Шаблон:Lang; Шаблон:Lang, "I'll do it right now").
- Шаблон:Lang: indicates emphatically that a process has all finished. Шаблон:Lang, "I painted the wall completely".
This suffix can be joined with Шаблон:Lang, making up Шаблон:Lang: Шаблон:Lang, "now we came to know all your thought".
- Шаблон:Lang: customary action in the past: Шаблон:Lang, "He used to come a lot".
These are unstressed suffixes: Шаблон:Lang; so the stress goes upon the last syllable of the verb or the last stressed syllable.
Other verbal morphemes
- Шаблон:Lang: desiderative suffix: Шаблон:Lang, "I want to study".[25]
- Шаблон:Lang: desiderative prefix: Шаблон:Lang, "I pass", Шаблон:Lang, "I would like to pass." Шаблон:Lang is the underlying form. It is similar to the negative in that it has the same vowel alternations and deletions, depending on the person marker on the verb.[24]Шаблон:Rp
Determiners
| Guarani | English | Spanish |
|---|---|---|
| 1 – Demonstratives: | ||
| (a) With near objects and entities (you see it) | ||
| ko | this | este, esta |
| upe/pe | that | ese, esa |
| amo | that/yonder | aquel, aquella |
| peteĩ-teĩ (+/- va) | each | cada uno |
| koШаблон:Hamzaã, ã, áã | these | estos, estas |
| umi | those | esos, esas, aquellos, aquellas |
| (b) Indefinite, with far objects and entities (you do not see it -remembering demonstratives ): | ||
| ku | that (singular) | aquel, aquella |
| akói | those (plural) | aquellos, aquellas |
| (c) Other usual demonstratives determiners: | ||
| opa | all | todo, toda, todos, todas (with all entities) |
| mayma | all | todos, todas (with people) |
| mbovy- | some, a few, determinate | unos, unas |
| heta | a lot of, very much | muchos, muchas |
| ambue (+/- kuéra) | other | otros, otras |
| ambue | another | otro, otra |
| ambueve: | The other | el otro, la otra |
| ambueve | other, another | otro, otros, (enfático) – |
| oimeraẽ | either | cualquiera |
| mokoĩve | both | ambos, ambas |
| ni peteĩ (+/- ve) | neither | ni el uno ni el otro |
Spanish loans in Guarani
The close and prolonged contact Spanish and Guarani have experienced has resulted in many Guarani words of Spanish origin. Many of these loans were for things or concepts unknown to the New World prior to Spanish colonization. Examples are seen below:[26]
| Semantic category | Spanish | Guarani | English | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Orthography | IPA | Orthography | IPA | ||
| animals | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:IPA | cow |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:IPA | horse | |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:IPA | goat | |
| religion | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:IPA | cross |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:IPA | Jesus Christ | |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:IPA | Paul (saint) | |
| place names | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:IPA | Australia |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:IPA | Iceland | |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:IPA | Portugal | |
| foods | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:IPA | cheese |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:IPA | sugar | |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:IPA | blood sausage | |
| herbs/spices | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:IPA | cinnamon |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:IPA | cilantro (US), coriander (UK) | |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:IPA | anise | |
Guarani loans in English
English has adopted a small number of words from Guarani (or perhaps the related Tupi) via Portuguese, mostly the names of animals or plants. "Jaguar" comes from Шаблон:Lang and "piraña" comes from Шаблон:Lang ("tooth fish" Tupi: Шаблон:Lang 'fish', Шаблон:Lang 'tooth').[27] Other words are: "agouti" from Шаблон:Lang, "tapir" from Шаблон:Lang, "açaí" from Шаблон:Lang ("[fruit that] cries or expels water"), "warrah" from Шаблон:Lang meaning "fox", "margay" from Шаблон:Lang meaning "small cat" and "common water boa" from Шаблон:Lang meaning "snake". Jacaranda, guarana and mandioca are words of Guarani or Tupi–Guarani origin.[28] Ipecacuanha (the name of a medicinal drug) comes from a homonymous Tupi–Guaraní name that can be rendered as Шаблон:Lang, meaning a creeping plant that makes one vomit.[29]
The name of Paraguay is itself a Guarani word, as is the name of Uruguay. However, the exact meaning of either placename is up to varied interpretations. (See: List of country-name etymologies.)
"Cougar" is borrowed from the archaic Portuguese çuçuarana; the term was either originally derived from the Tupi language Шаблон:Lang, meaning "similar to deer (in hair color)" or from the Guaraní language term Шаблон:Lang. Puma instead comes from the Peruvian Quechua language.
Example text
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Guaraní:
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English:
- All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.[31]
Literature
The New Testament was translated from Greek into Guaraní by Dr John William Lindsay (1875–1946), who was a Scottish medical missionary based in Belén, Paraguay. The New Testament was printed by the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1913. It is believed to be the first New Testament translated into any South American indigenous language.
A more modern translation of the whole Bible into Guarani is known as Шаблон:Lang.[32]
In 2019, Jehovah's Witnesses released the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures in Guarani,[33][34] both in print and online.[35]
Recently a series of novels in Guarani have been published:
- Шаблон:Lang (Tadeo Zarratea, 1981)
- Шаблон:Lang (Hugo Centurión, 2016)
- Шаблон:Lang (Arnaldo Casco Villalba, 2017)
Institutions
- Ateneo de Lengua y Cultura Guaraní
- [[Yvy MarãeШаблон:Hamzaỹ Foundation]]
See also
- Guarani languages
- Nheengatu language
- Jopará
- Jesuit Reductions
- Mbyá Guaraní language
- Old Tupi
- WikiProject Guaraní Шаблон:In lang
Notes
Bibliography
Sources
Further reading
External links
- Guarani at Wikibooks Шаблон:In lang
- Guarani Portal from the University of Mainz:
- www.guaranirenda.com – Website about the Guarani language
- Guarani and the Importance of Maintaining Indigenous Culture Through Language Шаблон:Webarchive
- Lenguas de Bolivia (online edition)
- Duolingo course in Guarani
Resources
- A Grammar of Paraguayan Guarani – by Bruno Estigarribia, UCL Press (open access, Creative Commons license)
- Guarani Swadesh vocabulary list (from Wiktionary)
- Guarani–English Dictionary: from *Webster's Online Dictionary – The Rosetta Edition
- www.guarani.de – Online dictionary in Spanish, German and Guarani
- Guarani Possessive Constructions: – by Maura Velázquez
- Stative Verbs and Possession in Guarani: – University of Cologne - by Sebastian Nordhoff
- Frases celebres del Latin traducidas al guarani Шаблон:In lang
- Spanish – Estructura Basica del Guarani and others
- Etymological and Ethnographic Dictionary for Bolivian Guarani
- Guaraní (Intercontinental Dictionary Series)
Шаблон:Languages of Argentina Шаблон:Languages of Bolivia Шаблон:Languages of Brazil Шаблон:Languages of Paraguay Шаблон:Tupian languages Шаблон:Authority control
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite LPD
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ 4,0 4,1 Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Montoya, Antonio Ruiz de. Tesoro de la lengua guaraní. A LOS PADRES RELIGIOSOS "Шаблон:Lang"
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite encyclopedia
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite thesis
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ 24,0 24,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Pinta, J. (2013). "Lexical strata in loanword phonology: Spanish loans in Guarani". Master's thesis, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. (See also Lexical stratum.)
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite conference
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite OED
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- Английская Википедия
- Страницы с неработающими файловыми ссылками
- Guarani languages
- Agglutinative languages
- Languages of Argentina
- Languages of Bolivia
- Languages of Brazil
- Languages of Paraguay
- Indigenous languages of South America (Central)
- Subject–verb–object languages
- Страницы, где используется шаблон "Навигационная таблица/Телепорт"
- Страницы с телепортом
- Википедия
- Статья из Википедии
- Статья из Английской Википедии
