Английская Википедия:Guiyi Circuit
Шаблон:Use mdy dates Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Use American English Шаблон:Infobox country The Guiyi Circuit, also known as the Guiyi Army (Шаблон:Lang-zh, 848–1036 AD), Golden Mountain Kingdom of Western Han (Шаблон:Lang-zh, 909–911), Dunhuang Kingdom of Western Han (Шаблон:Lang-zh, 911–914), was a Chinese regional military command and later an autonomous dynastic regime nominally subordinate to the Tang dynasty, the Five Dynasties, and the Northern Song dynasty. The Guiyi Circuit was controlled by the Zhang family from the second half of the 9th century to the 10th century and then the Cao family until the 11th century. The Guiyi Circuit was headquartered in Shazhou (沙州; modern-day Dunhuang).
Background
The Hexi Corridor was an important part of the Silk Road, connecting Central Asia with Northwest China. After the An Lushan Rebellion, the Hexi Corridor was occupied by the Tibetan Empire.[1] Around the 770s or the 780s, Shazhou, otherwise known as Dunhuang, was occupied by the Tibetans.[2]
Zhang family
After some 60 years of Tibetan rule, Tibet entered its Era of Fragmentation and was torn by civil war by 851. Tibetans in the Dunhuang region become part of a group known as wamo in Chinese historical sources.
In 848 Zhang Yichao, a resident of Shazhou, led an uprising and captured Shazhou and Guazhou from the Tibetans.[3]
By 850 Zhang had captured Ganzhou, Suzhou, and Yizhou.Шаблон:Sfn Zhang claimed the title of acting prefect of Shazhou and submitted a petition to Emperor Xuānzong of Tang, offering his loyalty and submission.
In 851 Zhang captured Xizhou (Gaochang). Envoys from Shazhou reached the Tang court and the emperor responded by naming Zhang's territory the Guiyi Circuit and made Zhang Yichao the Guiyi Jiedushi (歸義節度使, Governor of the Guiyi Circuit) and Cao Yijin his secretary general.Шаблон:Sfn
In 856 Zhang attacked the Tibetans and defeated them.Шаблон:Sfn
By 861 the Guiyi Circuit had extended its authority to Guazhou, Ganzhou, Suzhou, Yizhou, Lanzhou, Shanzhou, Hezhou, Minzhou, Liangzhou, and Kuozhou.Шаблон:Sfn
In 866 Zhang Yichao defeated the Tibetan general bLon Khrom brZhe (Шаблон:Bo 論恐熱 Lun Kongre) and seized Luntai (Ürümqi) and Tingzhou. However they were immediately captured by the Kingdom of Qocho afterwards. Xizhou was also captured by the Uyghurs. BLon Khrom brZhe was an attack commissioner in the region. After Langdarma's death in 842, he fought constantly with another commissioner, Shang Bibi.Шаблон:Sfn He was captured by Shang Bibi's subordinate, Tuoba Huaiguang, in 866 and sent to the Tang court.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Quotation
In 867 Zhang Yichao departed for the Tang court after his brother Yitan, who had been staying in Chang'an as a hostage, died. His nephew Zhang Huaishen succeeded him as Guiyi Jiedushi.Шаблон:Sfn
In 869 the Kingdom of Qocho attacked the Guiyi Circuit but was repelled.Шаблон:Sfn
In 870 the Kingdom of Qocho attacked the Guiyi Circuit but was repelled.Шаблон:Sfn
In 872 Zhang Yichao died at court.Шаблон:Sfn
In 876 the Kingdom of Qocho seized Yizhou.Шаблон:Sfn
In 880, Qocho attacked Shazhou, but was repelled.Шаблон:Sfn
Around the years 881 and 882, Ganzhou and Liangzhou slipped from the control of the Guiyi Circuit. The Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom would establish itself in Ganzhou by 894.Шаблон:Sfn In Liangzhou, the Tibetan state of Xiliangfu established itself by 906.Шаблон:Sfn
In 890 Zhang Huaishen was assassinated and his cousin Zhang Huaiding succeeded him.Шаблон:Sfn
In 892 Zhang Huaiding died and left his son in the care of Suo Xun (索勳), son-in-law of Zhang Yichao. Suo Xun declared himself Guiyi Jiedushi.Шаблон:Sfn
In 894 Suo Xun was killed by a local aristocrat by the name of Li Mingzhen and Zhang Yichao's daughter. Li's sons shared control of Guiyi Circuit afterwards.Шаблон:Sfn
In 896 Li Mingzhen's sons were ousted and Zhang Chengfeng (張承奉), a grandson of Zhang Yichao, became jiedushi.Шаблон:Sfn
In 904, Zhang Chengfeng attacked Qocho and seized Yizhou (Hami) and Xizhou (Gaochang).Шаблон:Sfn
In 910 Zhang Chengfeng received news of the Tang dynasty's demise and declared himself Emperor Baiyi. The Guiyi Circuit was renamed Kingdom of Jinshan.Шаблон:Sfn
Kingdom of Jinshan
The rulers of Guiyi in Dunhuang briefly called themselves "emperors" for a short period after the final collapse of the Tang dynasty.[4]
In 910 Zhang Chengfeng established a kingdom known as the Xihan Jinshan (西漢金山國 Xīhàn Jīnshānguó), "The Golden Mountain Kingdom of the Western Han," and gave himself the title of "Son of Heaven."[5][6] This was followed by an invasion by the Ganzhou Uyghurs.
In 911 the Ganzhou Uyghurs attacked again and the Kingdom of Jinshan was forced to become a lesser partner in an alliance with the Ganzhou Uyghurs. The Great Chancellor (大宰相) and the elders of Jinshan State made a treaty with the Ganzhou Uyghurs, recognizing their superiority. The relationship between the two was prescribed as
"...the Khan is the father, and the Son of Heaven is the son..." (...可汗是父,天子是子...)[5]
In 914 Cao Yijin usurped the throne and abolished the kingdom, reverting the name to Guiyi Army.
Cao family
In 914 Cao Yijin (曹議金) usurped the throne and restored the name Guiyi Circuit.Шаблон:Sfn
In 916 Cao Yijin married a Ganzhou Uyghur princess and sent delegations to the Later Liang.[7]
In 924 the Ganzhou Uyghur Khagan died and his successors Renmei and Diyin declared war on each other, with Diyin coming out victorious.Шаблон:Sfn
In 925 Cao Yijin defeated the Ganzhou Uyghurs.Шаблон:Sfn
In 926, Diyin died, and Aduoyu (阿咄欲) became the Khan of the Ganzhou Uyghurs. Aduoyu married a daughter of Cao Yijin.Шаблон:Sfn
Kingdom of Guiyi
In 931 Cao Yijin declared himself as Lord (令公) and Great King-reclaiming-the-west (拓西大王).Шаблон:Sfn[8] The Cao rulers continued using the Chinese reign era names, and maintained cordial relations with the Chinese heartland and its socio-political system.[9]
In 934 Cao Yijin married his daughter to the king of Khotan.
In 935 Cao Yijin died and was succeeded by his son, Cao Yuande.Шаблон:Sfn
In 939 Cao Yuande (曹元德) died and was succeeded by his brother Yuanshen (曹元深).Шаблон:Sfn
In 944 Cao Yuanshen died and his brother Yuanzhong (曹元忠) succeeded him. Cao Yuanzhong's reign was characterized by progress in agriculture, transportation, and printing.[10] Relationship with the Ganzhou Uyghurs remained relatively stable during this period.[11]
In 950 the first depiction of fire lances appeared in Shazhou.
In 974 Cao Yuanzhong died and his nephew Cao Yangong (曹延恭) succeeded him.Шаблон:Sfn
In 976 Cao Yangong died and his brother Yanlu (曹延祿) succeeded him. Yanlu married a Khotanese princess.Шаблон:Sfn
In 1002 Cao Yanlu's nephew Cao Zongshou rebelled in Shazhou. Cao Yanlu and his brother Cao Yanrui (曹延瑞) committed suicide. Cao Zongshou became ruler of Guiyi.[12][13]
In 1014 Cao Zongshou died and his son Cao Xianshun (曹賢順) succeeded him.Шаблон:Sfn
In 1028 the Tanguts defeated the Ganzhou Uyghurs.[14]
In 1030 Cao Xianshun surrendered to the Tanguts.[14]
In 1036 the Tanguts, who later established the Western Xia, annexed the Kingdom of Guiyi.[14]
Religion
Buddhism was prevalent in Dunhuang (Shazhou) during the Guiyi period, and had been before as well under Tibetan rule. Under Tibetan rule, the number of Buddhist temples increased from 6 to 19 and more than 40 new caves were created. Confucian classics were also taught in Buddhist monasteries.Шаблон:Sfn Many of Zhang Yichao's family converted to Buddhism. He also studied Buddhism in his youth. A manuscript from Dunhuang contains a signature that reads, "written by Buddha's secular disciple Zhang Yichao."Шаблон:Sfn After Zhang Yichao took over, the Buddhists of Dunhuang reconnected with the Tang court and he presented the work of Cheng'en, a monk from the Hexi Corridor, to the Tang court to support the Buddhist restoration movement of emperors Xuanzong and Yizong. Texts that had been lost in Dunhuang due to warfare were reproduced using Tang copies.Шаблон:Sfn Despite Zhang's association with Buddhism, due to a shortage of manpower, he made many temple households independent peasants to satisfy the demands of recruitment.Шаблон:Sfn
As the Tang dynasty collapsed and entered the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, Buddhism in Dunghuang gravitated towards lay Buddhism and apocryphal sūtras rather than scripture-based tradition. At the beginning of the Guiyi period, the Buddhist master Faheng and his disciples Fajing and Fahai delivered lectures in Dunhuang. After 883, lectures by monks are no longer mentioned in manuscript colophons and only lay devotional practices such as building caves, erecting statues, and addresses to common people are recorded.Шаблон:Sfn
In addition to Buddhism, discoveries of Manichaean, Nestorian Christian, and Zoroastrian documents and other artifacts at Mogao Caves dating back to the Guiyi era reveal their coexistence in a multi-religious world.Шаблон:Sfn
Sogdians of Dunhuang
During the Tang and subsequent Five Dynasties and Song Dynasty, large communities of Sogdians lived in China, especially in the multicultural entrepôt of Dunhuang, Gansu, a major center of Buddhist learning and home to the Buddhist Mogao Caves.[16] While the region occasionally fell under the rule of different states (the Tang, the Tibetan Empire, and later the Western Xia led by the Tanguts), it retained its multilingual nature as evidenced by an abundance of manuscripts (religious and secular) in Chinese and Tibetan, but also Sogdian, Khotanese (another Eastern Iranian language native to the region), Uyghur, and Sanskrit.[17]
From the Chinese surnames listed in the Tang-era Dunhuang manuscript Pelliot chinois 3319V (containing the following text: 石定信右全石丑子石定奴福延福全保昌張丑子李千子李定信), the names of the Nine Zhaowu Clans (昭武九姓), the prominent ethnic Sogdian families of China, have been deduced.[18] Of these the most common Sogdian surname throughout China was Shi (i.e. 石), whereas the surnames Shi (i.e. 史), An, Mi (i.e. 米), Kang, Cao, and He appear frequently in Dunhuang manuscripts and registers.[19] Zhang Yichao appointed An Jingmin as vice commissioner of Guiyi, Kang Shijun as prefect of Guazhou, and Kang Tongxin as magistrate of some towns to the east.Шаблон:Sfn The influence of Sinicized and multilingual Sogdians during this Guiyijun (歸義軍) period (c. 850 - c. 1000 AD) of Dunhuang is evident in a large number of manuscripts written in Chinese characters from left to right instead of vertically, mirroring the direction of how the Sogdian alphabet is read.[20] Sogdians of Dunhuang also commonly formed and joined lay associations among their local communities, convening at Sogdian-owned taverns in scheduled meetings mentioned in their epistolary letters.[21]
Mogao Caves
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Dunhuang woman in Tang dress
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Dunhuang Buddhist woman
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Lady Liangguo, a Buddhist donor
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Buddhist donor and her retinue, 983 Шаблон:Smallcaps2
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Dunhuang Buddhist donor
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Khotanese donors
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Dunhuang Buddhist women
See also
References
Bibliography
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- Mackerras, Colin, The Uighur Empire: According to the T'ang Dynastic Histories, A Study in Sino-Uighur Relations, 744–840. Publisher: Australian National University Press, 1972. 226 pages, Шаблон:ISBN
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Шаблон:Central Asian history Шаблон:5d10k
- ↑ "补唐书张议潮传" by 罗振玉
- ↑ "吐蕃和平占領沙州城的宗教因素" by 張延清
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 5,0 5,1 "归义军史研究——唐宋时代敦煌历史考索" by 荣新江
- ↑ "羅叔言《補唐書張議潮傳》補正" by 向達
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ "中国古代印刷史" by 罗树宝
- ↑ "敦煌历史上的曹元忠时代" by 荣新江
- ↑ "宋会要辑稿" by 徐松
- ↑ "续资治通鉴长编" by 李焘
- ↑ 14,0 14,1 14,2 "西夏紀" by 戴锡章
- ↑ "The Genius of China", Robert Temple
- ↑ Galambos, Imre (2015), "She Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter, A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture, Brill: Leiden, Boston, pp 870-71.
- ↑ Galambos, Imre (2015), "She Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter, A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture, Brill: Leiden, Boston, p 871.
- ↑ Galambos, Imre (2015), "She Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter, A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture, Brill: Leiden, Boston, pp 871-72.
- ↑ Galambos, Imre (2015), "She Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter, A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture, Brill: Leiden, Boston, p. 872.
- ↑ Galambos, Imre (2015), "She Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter, A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture, Brill: Leiden, Boston, pp 870, 873.
- ↑ Galambos, Imre (2015), "She Association Circulars from Dunhuang", in Antje Richter, A History of Chinese Letters and Epistolary Culture, Brill: Leiden, Boston, pp 872-73.
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