Английская Википедия:H

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Distinguish Шаблон:About Шаблон:Pp-semi-indef Шаблон:Pp-move Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Infobox grapheme Шаблон:Latin alphabet sidebar

H, or h, is the eighth letter of the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, including the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is aitch (pronounced Шаблон:IPAc-en, plural aitches), or regionally haitch Шаблон:IPAc-en.[1]

Name

English

For most English speakers, the name for the letter is pronounced as Шаблон:IPAc-en and spelled "aitch"[1] or occasionally "eitch". The pronunciation Шаблон:IPAc-en and the associated spelling "haitch" is often considered to be h-adding and is considered non-standard in England.[2] It is, however, a feature of Hiberno-English,[3] and occurs sporadically in various other dialects.

The perceived name of the letter affects the choice of indefinite article before initialisms beginning with H: for example "an H-bomb" or "a H-bomb". The pronunciation Шаблон:IPA may be a hypercorrection formed by analogy with the names of the other letters of the alphabet, most of which include the sound they represent.[4]

The haitch pronunciation of h has spread in England, being used by approximately 24% of English people born since 1982,[5] and polls continue to show this pronunciation becoming more common among younger native speakers. Despite this increasing number, the pronunciation without the Шаблон:IPA sound is still considered to be standard in England, although the pronunciation with Шаблон:IPA is also attested as a legitimate variant.[2] In Northern Ireland, the pronunciation of the letter has been used as a shibboleth, with Catholics typically pronouncing it with the Шаблон:IPA and Protestants pronouncing the letter without it.[6]

Authorities disagree about the history of the letter's name. The Oxford English Dictionary says the original name of the letter was Шаблон:IPA in Latin; this became Шаблон:IPA in Vulgar Latin, passed into English via Old French Шаблон:IPA, and by Middle English was pronounced Шаблон:IPA. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language derives it from French hache from Latin haca or hic. Anatoly Liberman suggests a conflation of two obsolete orderings of the alphabet, one with H immediately followed by K and the other without any K: reciting the former's ..., H, K, L,... as Шаблон:IPA when reinterpreted for the latter ..., H, L,... would imply a pronunciation Шаблон:IPA for H.[7]

Other languages

History

Egyptian hieroglyph
fence 		Proto-Sinaitic
ḥaṣr 		Phoenician
Heth 		Greek
Heta 		Etruscan
H 		Latin
H
<hiero>N24</hiero> Файл:Proto-semiticH-01.svg Файл:PhoenicianH-01.svg Файл:PhoenicianH-01.svgФайл:Greek Eta 2-bars.svg
Файл:Greek Eta square-2-bars.svgФайл:Greek Eta diagonal.svg 		Файл:PhoenicianH-01.svg Файл:Capitalis monumentalis H.svg

The original Semitic letter Heth most likely represented the voiceless pharyngeal fricative (Шаблон:IPA link). The form of the letter probably stood for a fence or posts.

The Greek Eta 'Η' in archaic Greek alphabets, before coming to represent a long vowel, Шаблон:IPA, still represented a similar sound, the voiceless glottal fricative Шаблон:IPA. In this context, the letter eta is also known as Heta to underline this fact. Thus, in the Old Italic alphabets, the letter Heta of the Euboean alphabet was adopted with its original sound value Шаблон:IPA.

While Etruscan and Latin had Шаблон:IPA as a phoneme, almost all Romance languages lost the sound—Romanian later re-borrowed the Шаблон:IPA phoneme from its neighbouring Slavic languages, and Spanish developed a secondary Шаблон:IPA from Шаблон:IPA, before losing it again; various Spanish dialects have developed Шаблон:IPA as an allophone of Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA in most Spanish-speaking countries, and various dialects of Portuguese use it as an allophone of Шаблон:IPA. 'H' is also used in many spelling systems in digraphs and trigraphs, such as 'ch', which represents Шаблон:IPA in Spanish, Galician, and Old Portuguese; Шаблон:IPA in French and modern Portuguese; Шаблон:IPA in Italian and French.

Use in writing systems

English

In English, Шаблон:Angbr occurs as a single-letter grapheme (being either silent or representing the voiceless glottal fricative (Шаблон:IPAc-en) and in various digraphs, such as Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPAc-en, Шаблон:IPAc-en, Шаблон:IPAc-en, or Шаблон:IPAc-en), Шаблон:Angbr (silent, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, or Шаблон:IPA), Шаблон:Angbr (Шаблон:IPA), Шаблон:Angbr (Шаблон:IPA), Шаблон:Angbr (Шаблон:IPAc-en), Шаблон:Angbr (Шаблон:IPAc-en or Шаблон:IPAc-en), Шаблон:Angbr (Шаблон:IPAslink[8]). The letter is silent in a syllable rime, as in ah, ohm, dahlia, cheetah, pooh-poohed, as well as in certain other words (mostly of French origin) such as hour, honest, herb (in American but not British English) and vehicle (in certain varieties of English). Initial Шаблон:IPA is often not pronounced in the weak form of some function words including had, has, have, he, her, him, his, and in some varieties of English (including most regional dialects of England and Wales) it is often omitted in all words (see [[h-dropping|'Шаблон:Angbr'-dropping]]). It was formerly common for an rather than a to be used as the indefinite article before a word beginning with Шаблон:IPA in an unstressed syllable, as in "an historian", but use of a is now more usual (see Шаблон:Slink). In English, The pronunciation of Шаблон:Angbr as /h/ can be analyzed as a voiceless vowel. That is, when the phoneme /h/ precedes a vowel, /h/ may be realized as a voiceless version of the subsequent vowel. For example, the word Шаблон:Angbr, /hɪt/ is realized as [ɪ̥ɪt].[9] H is the eighth most frequently used letter in the English language (after S, N, I, O, A, T, and E), with a frequency of about 4.2% in words.Шаблон:Citation needed When h is placed after certain other consonants, it modifies their pronunciation in various ways, e.g. for ch, gh, ph, sh, and th.

Other languages

In German, following a vowel, it often silently indicates that the vowel is long: In the word Шаблон:Lang ('heighten'), the second Шаблон:Angbr is mute for most speakers outside of Switzerland. In 1901, a spelling reform eliminated the silent Шаблон:Angbr in nearly all instances of Шаблон:Angbr in native German words such as thun ('to do') or Thür ('door'). It has been left unchanged in words derived from Greek, such as Шаблон:Lang ('theater') and Шаблон:Lang ('throne'), which continue to be spelled with Шаблон:Angbr even after the last German spelling reform.

In Spanish and Portuguese, Шаблон:Angbr is a silent letter with no pronunciation, as in Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('son') and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('Hungarian'). The spelling reflects an earlier pronunciation of the sound Шаблон:IPA. In words where the Шаблон:Angbr is derived from a Latin Шаблон:IPA, it is still sometimes pronounced with the value Шаблон:IPA in some regions of Andalusia, Extremadura, Canarias, Cantabria, and the Americas. Some words beginning with Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA, such as Шаблон:Lang-es and Шаблон:Lang-es, were given an initial Шаблон:Angbr to avoid confusion between their initial semivowels and the consonants Шаблон:Angbr and Шаблон:Angbr. This is because Шаблон:Angbr and Шаблон:Angbr used to be considered variants of Шаблон:Angbr and Шаблон:Angbr respectively. Шаблон:Angbr also appears in the digraph Шаблон:Angbr, which represents Шаблон:IPAslink in Spanish and northern Portugal, and Шаблон:IPAslink in varieties that have merged both sounds (the latter originally represented by Шаблон:Angbr instead), such as most of the Portuguese language and some Spanish dialects, prominently Chilean Spanish.

French orthography classifies words that begin with this letter in two ways, one of which can affect the pronunciation, even though it is a silent letter either way. The H muet, or "mute" Шаблон:Angbr, is considered as though the letter were not there at all, so for example the singular definite article le or la, which is elided to l' before a vowel, elides before an H muet followed by a vowel. For example, le + hébergement becomes l'hébergement ('the accommodation'). The other kind of Шаблон:Angbr is called h aspiré ("[[aspirated h|aspirated 'Шаблон:Angbr']]", though it is not normally aspirated phonetically), and does not allow elision or liaison. For example in le homard ('the lobster') the article le remains unelided, and may be separated from the noun with a bit of a glottal stop. Most words that begin with an H muet come from Latin (honneur, homme) or from Greek through Latin (hécatombe), whereas most words beginning with an H aspiré come from Germanic (harpe, hareng) or non-Indo-European languages (harem, hamac, haricot); in some cases, an orthographic Шаблон:Angbr was added to disambiguate the Шаблон:IPA and semivowel Шаблон:IPA pronunciations before the introduction of the distinction between the letters Шаблон:Angbr and Шаблон:Angbr: huit (from uit, ultimately from Latin octo), huître (from uistre, ultimately from Greek through Latin ostrea).

In Italian, Шаблон:Angbr has no phonological value. Its most important uses are in the digraphs 'ch' Шаблон:IPA and 'gh' Шаблон:IPA, as well as to differentiate the spellings of certain short words that are homophones, for example some present tense forms of the verb avere ('to have') (such as hanno, 'they have', vs. anno, 'year'), and in short interjections (oh, ehi).

Some languages, including Czech, Slovak, Hungarian, Finnish, and Estonian use Шаблон:Angbr as a breathy voiced glottal fricative Шаблон:IPA, often as an allophone of otherwise voiceless Шаблон:IPA in a voiced environment.

In Hungarian, the letter represents a phoneme Шаблон:IPAslink with four allophones: Шаблон:IPAblink before vowels, Шаблон:IPAblink between two vowels, Шаблон:IPAblink after front vowels, and Шаблон:IPAblink word-finally after back vowels. It can also be silent word-finally after back vowels. It is Шаблон:IPAblink when geminated. In archaic spelling, the digraph Шаблон:Angbr represents Шаблон:IPAslink (as in the name Széchenyi) and Шаблон:IPAslink (as in pech, which is pronounced Шаблон:IPA); in certain environments it breaks palatalization of a consonant, as in the name Beöthy which is pronounced Шаблон:IPA (without the intervening h, the name Beöty could be pronounced Шаблон:IPA); and finally, it acts as a silent component of a digraph, as in the name Vargha, pronounced Шаблон:IPA.

In Ukrainian and Belarusian, when written in the Latin alphabet, Шаблон:Angbr is also commonly used for Шаблон:IPA, which is otherwise written with the Cyrillic letter Шаблон:Angbr.

In Irish, Шаблон:Angbr is not considered an independent letter, except for a very few non-native words, however Шаблон:Angbr placed after a consonant is known as a "séimhiú" and indicates lenition of that consonant; Шаблон:Angbr began to replace the original form of a séimhiú, a dot placed above the consonant, after the introduction of typewriters.

In most dialects of Polish, both Шаблон:Angbr and the digraph Шаблон:Angbr always represent Шаблон:IPA.

In Basque, during the 20th century it was not used in the orthography of the Basque dialects in Spain but it marked an aspiration in the North-Eastern dialects. During the standardization of Basque in the 1970s, the compromise was reached that h would be accepted if it were the first consonant in a syllable. Hence, herri ("people") and etorri ("to come") were accepted instead of erri (Biscayan) and ethorri (Souletin). Speakers could pronounce the h or not. For the dialects lacking the aspiration, this meant a complication added to the standardized spelling.

Other systems

As a phonetic symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), it is used mainly for the so-called aspirations (fricative or trills), and variations of the plain letter are used to represent two sounds: the lowercase form Шаблон:IPAalink represents the voiceless glottal fricative, and the small capital form Шаблон:IPAalink represents the voiceless epiglottal fricative (or trill). With a bar, minuscule Шаблон:IPAalink is used for a voiceless pharyngeal fricative. Specific to the IPA, a hooked Шаблон:IPAalink is used for a voiced glottal fricative, and a superscript Шаблон:IPAalink is used to represent aspiration.

Other uses

Шаблон:Main article

Related characters

Descendants and related characters in the Latin alphabet

Ancestors, siblings, and descendants in other alphabets

Derived signs, symbols, and abbreviations

Other representations

Computing

Шаблон:Charmap

1 and all encodings based on ASCII, including the DOS, Windows, ISO-8859, and Macintosh families of encodings.

Other

Шаблон:Letter other reps

See also

References

Шаблон:Reflist

External links

Шаблон:Spoken Wikipedia Шаблон:EB1911 poster Шаблон:Commons

Шаблон:Latin script

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  1. ↑ 1,0 1,1 "H" Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition (1989); Merriam-Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged (1993); "aitch" or "haitch", op. cit.
  2. ↑ 2,0 2,1 Шаблон:Cite news
  3. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  4. ↑ Todd, L. & Hancock I.: "International English Ipod", page 254. Routledge, 1990.
  5. ↑ John C. Wells, Longman Pronunciation Dictionary, page 360, Pearson, Harlow, 2008
  6. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  7. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  8. ↑ In many dialects, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA have merged
  9. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  10. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  11. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  12. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  13. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  14. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  15. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  16. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  17. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
Источник — http://wikihandbk.com/ruwiki/index.php?title=Английская_Википедия:H&oldid=15082843