Английская Википедия:Haida language

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Infobox language Шаблон:Infobox ethnonym Haida Шаблон:IPAc-en[1] (Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang[2]) is the language of the Haida people, spoken in the Haida Gwaii archipelago off the coast of Canada and on Prince of Wales Island in Alaska. An endangered language, Haida currentlyШаблон:When has 24 native speakers, though revitalization efforts are underway. At the time of the European arrival at Шаблон:Lang in 1774, it is estimated that Haida speakers numbered about 15,000. Epidemics soon led to a drastic reduction in the Haida population, which became limited to three villages: Masset, Skidegate, and Hydaburg. Positive attitudes towards assimilation combined with the ban on speaking Haida in residential schools led to a sharp decline in the use of the Haida language among the Haida people, and today almost all ethnic Haida use English to communicate.

Classification of the Haida language is a matter of controversy, with some linguists placing it in the Na-Dené language family and others arguing that it is a language isolate. Haida itself is split between Northern and Southern dialects, which differ primarily in phonology. The Northern Haida dialects have developed pharyngeal consonants, typologically uncommon sounds which are also found in some of the nearby Salishan and Wakashan languages.

The Haida sound system includes ejective consonants, glottalized sonorants, contrastive vowel length, and phonemic tone. The nature of tone differs between the dialects, and in Alaskan Haida it is primarily a pitch accent system. Syllabic laterals appear in all dialects of Haida, but are only phonemic in Skidegate Haida. Extra vowels which are not present in Haida words occur in nonsense words in Haida songs. There are a number of systems for writing Haida using the Latin alphabet, each of which represents the sounds of Haida differently.

While in Haida nouns and verbs behave as clear word classes, adjectives form a subclass of verbs. Haida has only a few adpositions. Indo-European-type adjectives translate into verbs in Haida, for example Шаблон:Lang "(to be) good", and English prepositional phrases are usually expressed with Haida "relational nouns", for instance Alaskan Haida Шаблон:Lang 'side facing away from the beach, towards the woods'. Haida verbs are marked for tense, aspect, mood, and evidentiality, and person is marked by pronouns that are cliticized to the verb. Haida also has hundreds of classifiers. Haida has the rare direct-inverse verbal alignment where instead of nominal cases, it is marked whether the grammatical subject and object follow or not a hierarchy between persons and noun classes. Haida also has obligatory possession, where certain types of nouns cannot stand alone and require a possessor.

History

The first documented contact between the Haida and Europeans was in 1772, on Juan Pérez's exploratory voyage.[3] At this time Haidas inhabited the Шаблон:Lang, Dall Island, and Prince of Wales Island.[3] The precontact Haida population was about 15,000; the first smallpox epidemic came soon after initial contact, reducing the population to about 10,000 and depopulating a large portion of the Ninstints dialect area.[4] The next epidemic came in 1862, causing the population to drop to 1,658.[4] Venereal disease and tuberculosis further reduced the population to 588 by 1915.[4] This dramatic decline led to the merger of villages, the final result being three Haida villages: Masset (merged 1876), Skidegate (merged 1879), and Hydaburg (merged 1911).[5]

Шаблон:Main In the 1830s a pidgin trade language based on Haida, known as Haida Jargon, was used in the islands by speakers of English, Haida, Coast Tsimshian, and Heiltsuk.[6] The Fraser Canyon Gold Rush of 1858 led to a boom in the town of Victoria, and Southern Haida began traveling there annually, mainly for the purpose of selling their women.[7] For this the Haida used Chinook Jargon.[8] This contact with whites had a strong effect on the Southern Haida, even as the Northern Haida remained culturally conservative.[8] For instance, Skidegate Haida were reported as dressing in the European fashion in 1866, while Northern Haida "were still wearing bearskins and blankets ten years later."[8]

In 1862, William Duncan, a British Anglican missionary stationed at Fort Simpson, took fifty Tsimshian converts and created a new model community, Metlakatla, in Alaska.[9] The new village was greatly successful, and throughout the Northwest coast the attitude spread that abandoning tradition would pave the way for a better life.[10] The Haida themselves invited missionaries to their community, the first arriving in 1876.[10] These missionaries initially worked in the Haida language.[10]

The Rev. John Henry Keen translated the Book of Common Prayer into Haida, published in 1899 in London by the Church Mission Society.[11][nb 1] The book of Psalms as well as 3 Gospels and Acts from the New Testament would also be translated into Haida.[10] However, negative attitudes towards the use of the Haida language were widespread among the Haida people, even in the fairly conservative village of Masset where Keen was located.[10] In an 1894 letter, Keen wrote:

Шаблон:Quote

Beginning at the turn of the century, Haida began sending their children to residential schools.[10] This practice was most widespread among the Southern Haida; among the Northern Haida it was practiced by the more "progressive" families.[12] These schools strictly enforced a ban on the use of native languages, and played a major role in the decimation of native Northwest Coast languages.[12] The practice of Haida families using English to address children spread in Masset in the 1930s, having already been practiced in Skidegate, the rationale being that this would aid the children in their school education.[12] After this point few children were raised with Haida as a primary language.[12]

Status

Файл:Old Massett.jpg
Haida text on Old Massett welcome sign

Today most Haida do not speak the Haida language. The language is listed as "critically endangered" in UNESCO's Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger, with nearly all speakers elderly.[13][14] As of 2003, most speakers of Haida are between 70 and 80 years of age, though they speak a "considerably simplified" form of Haida, and comprehension of the language is mostly limited to persons above the age of 50. The language is rarely used even among the remaining speakers and comprehenders.[15]

The Haida have a renewed interest in their traditional culture, and are now funding Haida language programs in schools in the three Haida communities, though these have been ineffectual.[16] Haida classes are available in many Haida communities and can be taken at the University of Alaska Southeast in Juneau, Ketchikan, and Hydaburg.[14][17] A Skidegate Haida language app is available for iPhone, based on a "bilingual dictionary and phrase collection Шаблон:Sic words and phrases archived at the online Aboriginal language database FirstVoices.com."[18]

In 2017 Kingulliit Productions was working on the first feature film to be acted entirely in Haida; the actors had to be trained to pronounce the lines correctly.[19] The film, entitled SGaawaay K’uuna ("Edge of the Knife"), was due to be released in the United Kingdom in April 2019. [20]

Classification

Franz Boas first suggested that Haida might be genetically related to the Tlingit language in 1894, and linguist Edward Sapir included Haida in the Na-Dené language family in 1915.[21] This position was later supported by others, including Swanton, Pinnow, and Greenberg and Ruhlen.[21] Today, however, many linguists regard Haida as a language isolate.[22] This theory is not universally accepted; for example, Enrico (2004) argues that Haida does in fact belong to the Na-Dené family, though early loanwords make the evidence problematic.[21] A proposal linking Na-Dené to the Yeniseian family of central Siberia finds no evidence for including Haida.[23]

Dialects

Haida has a major dialectal division between Northern and Southern dialects.[3] Northern Haida is split into Alaskan (or Kaigani) Haida and Masset (or North Graham Island) Haida.[3] Southern Haida was originally split into Skidegate Haida and Ninstints Haida, but Ninstints Haida is now extinct and is poorly documented.[3] The dialects differ in phonology and to some extent vocabulary; however, they are grammatically mostly identical.[14]

Northern Haida is notable for its pharyngeal consonants.[24] Pharyngeal consonants are rare among the world's languages, even in North America.[25] They are an areal feature of some languages in a small portion of Northwest America, in the Salishan and Wakashan languages as well as Haida.[24] The pharyngeal consonants of Wakashan and Northern Haida are known to have developed recently.[24]

Phonology

Consonants

Skidegate Haida consonants[26][27]
Bilabial Alveolar Postalveolar
/ Palatal 		Palatal~Velar Uvular Pharyngeal Glottal
central lateral
Plosive plainШаблон:Ref Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink (Шаблон:IPAlink)Шаблон:Ref Шаблон:IPAlink
aspirated Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
ejective Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
Affricate lenis Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
fortis Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:Ref
ejective Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
Fricative Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink (Шаблон:IPAlink)Шаблон:Ref Шаблон:IPAlink
Nasal plain Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
glottalized Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
Approximant plain Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
glottalized Шаблон:IPAlink

In Alaskan Haida, all velar, uvular, and epiglottal consonants, as well as Шаблон:IPA for some speakers, have rounded variants resulting from coalescence of clusters with Шаблон:IPA.[32] Alaskan Haida also shows simplification of Шаблон:IPA to Шаблон:IPA when preceding an alveolar or postalveolar obstruent, and of Шаблон:IPA to Шаблон:IPA.[33]

In Skidegate Haida, Шаблон:IPA has allophone Шаблон:IPA in syllable-final position.[26]

Masset Haida phonology is complicated by various spreading processes caused by contiguous sonorants across morpheme boundaries, caused by loss of consonants in morpheme-initial position.[34]

Vowels

Skidegate Haida vowels[35]
Front Back
Close Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
Open-mid (Шаблон:IPAlink) (Шаблон:IPAlink)
Open Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
Masset and Kaigani Haida vowels[36]
Front Back
Close Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
Mid Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink (Шаблон:IPAlink)
Open Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink

The high vowels Шаблон:IPA may be realized as upper mid to high and include lax as well as tense values.[37]

The vowels Шаблон:IPA are rare in Skidegate Haida.[37] Шаблон:IPA only occurs in some interjections and borrowings, and Шаблон:IPA only occurs in the two words Шаблон:Lang "five" and Шаблон:Lang (a clitic).[37] In Masset Haida Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA are both very common are involved in spreading and ablaut processes.[27] Alaskan Haida has neither of these, but has a diphthong Шаблон:IPA, introduced from contraction of low-toned Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA sequences.[38]

In Skidegate Haida, some instances of the vowel Шаблон:IPA are on an underlying level unspecified for quality; Enrico (2003) marks specified Шаблон:IPA with the symbol Шаблон:Angle bracket Шаблон:IPAlink.[37] Unspecified Шаблон:IPA becomes Шаблон:IPA after Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA after (non-lateral) alveolar and palatal consonants, and syllabic Шаблон:IPA after lateral consonants.[37][nb 2] This does not exist in Masset Haida.[27] A small class of Masset Haida words has a new vowel in place of this unspecified vowel which differs in quality from the vowel Шаблон:IPA.[39]

Шаблон:IPA is the short counterpart of Шаблон:IPA and so can also be analyzed as Шаблон:IPA. Though quite variable in realization, it has an allophone Шаблон:IPA when occurring after uvular and epiglottal consonants.[40] The sequences Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA tend towards Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA for some speakers.[41]

A number of the contrasts between vowels, or sequences of vowels and the semivowels Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, are neutralized in certain positions:

The vowels Шаблон:IPA and short Шаблон:IPA occur in nonsense syllables in Haida songs.[45]

Tone

Haida features phonemic tone, the nature of which differs by dialect.

The Canadian dialects (Skidegate and Masset) have a tone system with low functional load.[39] Unmarked heavy syllables (those with long vowels or ending in sonorants) have high pitch, and unmarked light syllables have low pitch: Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA "dog", Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA "sapwood".[39] Examples of marked syllables include Шаблон:Lang "among" (Masset), Шаблон:Lang "tiny" (Skidegate).[46] In Masset Haida marked low tone syllables are more common, resulting from elision of intervocalic consonants: compare Skidegate Шаблон:Lang to Masset Шаблон:Lang "net".[46] Some alternations may be interpreted as results of syllable parsing rather than marked tone: compare Masset Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'muskeg' to Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'be suspicious of', where Шаблон:Lang marks a syllable boundary.[46]

In Skidegate Haida, short vowels which do not have marked tone are phonetically lengthened when they are in a word-initial open syllable, thus Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA "grass" becomes Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA "grassy".[15]

In Masset Haida, marked low tone syllables have extra length, thus Шаблон:Lang "thing", Шаблон:Lang "mother".[47]

In Kaigani, the system is primarily one of pitch accent, with at most one syllable per word featuring high tone in most words, though there are some exceptions (e.g. Шаблон:Lang "almost"), and it is not always clear what should be considered an independent "word".[45][48] High tone syllables are usually heavy (having a long vowel or ending in a sonorant).[49]

Phonotactics

The syllable template in Haida is (C(C(C))V(V)(C(C)).[39] In Skidegate Haida the two unaspirated stops /p t/ can occur in the syllable coda, while none of the other unaspirated or aspirated stops can.[26] In Masset Haida the unaspirated stops and affricates which may be in the syllable coda are Шаблон:IPA,[27] in Alaskan Haida Шаблон:IPA.[50] Would-be final Шаблон:IPA in loanwords may be nativized to zero.[51]

In Skidegate Haida a long syllabic lateral may appear in VV position, e.g. Шаблон:Lang "sew".[27] Historically this developed from long Шаблон:Lang after a lateral consonant, but a few Skidegate words retain Шаблон:Lang in this position, e.g. Шаблон:Lang "inside", Шаблон:Lang "mountain goat wool".[27] Syllabic resonants occur frequently in Masset Haida and occasionally in Kaigani Haida, but they are not present on the phonemic level.[36]

First orthography

Several orthographies have been devised for writing Haida. The first alphabet was devised by the missionary Charles Harrison[52] of the Church Mission Society who translated some Old Testament Stories in the Haida Language,[53] and some New Testament books. These were published by the British and Foreign Bible Society with the Haida Gospel of Matthew in 1891,[54] Haida Gospel of Luke in 1899[55] and the Haida Gospel of John in 1899,[56] and the book of Acts in Haida in the 1890s.

Modern orthography

The linguist John Enrico created another orthography for Skidegate and Masset Haida which introduced Шаблон:Angle bracket and Шаблон:Angle bracket as letters and did away with the distinction between upper and lower case, and this system is popular in Canada.[57][58][59] Another alphabet was devised by Alaska Native Language Center (ANLC) for Kaigani Haida in 1972, based on Tlingit orthographic conventions, and is still in use.Шаблон:Cn Robert Bringhurst, for his publications on Haida literature, created an orthography without punctuation or numerals, and few apostrophes; and in 2008 the Skidegate Haida Immersion Program (SHIP) created another, which is the usual orthography used in Skidegate.[60] Other systems have been used by isolated linguists.[59] Haida consonants are represented as follows.

Haida consonants[58][59]
Spelling Phoneme
Enrico
Masset 		Enrico
Skidegate 		ANLC SHIP Bringhurst
b Шаблон:IPA
c x Шаблон:IPA link
d Шаблон:IPA
dl Шаблон:IPA
g Шаблон:IPA
G r ĝ g̱ gh Шаблон:IPA
h Шаблон:IPA link
hl Шаблон:IPA link
j Шаблон:IPA
k Шаблон:IPA link
kʼ kk Шаблон:IPA link
q ḵ q Шаблон:IPA link
qʼ ḵʼ qq Шаблон:IPA link
l Шаблон:IPA link
ʼl ll Шаблон:IPA
m Шаблон:IPA link
ʼm mm Шаблон:IPA
n Шаблон:IPA link
ʼn nn Шаблон:IPA
ng Шаблон:IPA link
p Шаблон:IPA link
pʼ – Шаблон:IPA link
r g̱ – gh (Шаблон:Okina) Шаблон:IPA link
s Шаблон:IPA link
t Шаблон:IPA link
tʼ tt Шаблон:IPA link
tl Шаблон:IPA link
tlʼ ttl Шаблон:IPA link
ts (ch) Шаблон:IPA link
tsʼ tts Шаблон:IPA link
w Шаблон:IPA link
x x̱ – Шаблон:IPA link
X x x̂ x̱ xh Шаблон:IPA link
y Шаблон:IPA link
7 ʼ Шаблон:IPA link
Enrico
Masset 		Enrico
Skidegate 		ANLC SHIP Bringhurst Phoneme

In ANLC orthography Шаблон:Angle bracket is used for Шаблон:Angle bracket in syllable-initial position, and a hyphen is used to distinguish consonant clusters from digraphs (e.g. Шаблон:Lang contains the sequence Шаблон:IPA followed by Шаблон:IPA rather than the consonant Шаблон:IPA).[58] Bringhurst uses a raised dot for the same, Шаблон:Lang. The Enrico orthography uses Шаблон:Angle bracket (or Шаблон:Angle bracket when long) for the syllabic lateral in Skidegate Haida, e.g. Шаблон:Lang.[45][58] Enrico uses a period Шаблон:Angle bracket for an "unlinked consonant slot."[36] Шаблон:Angle bracket are used for Шаблон:IPA in Enrico's Skidegate orthography since they generally correspond to Шаблон:IPA in the other dialects.[58]

The following are how Haida vowels are written:

Haida vowels[61]
Front Back
Close i ii u uu
Mid e ee o oo
Open a aa

Enrico (2003) uses Шаблон:Angle bracket for some instances of Шаблон:IPA based on morphophonemics. Alaskan Haida also has a diphthong written Шаблон:Angle bracket. Enrico & Stuart (1996) use Шаблон:Angle bracket for the vowels Шаблон:IPA that occur in nonsense syllables in songs.[45] The Alaskan Haida orthography was updated in 2010 by Jordan Lachler.[62]

Grammar

Morphology

The word classes in Haida are nouns, verbs, postpositions, demonstratives, quantifiers, adverbs, clitics, exclamations, replies, classifiers, and instrumentals.[63] Unlike in English, adjectives and some words for people are expressed with verbs, e.g. Шаблон:Lang "(to be a) woman", Шаблон:Lang "(to be) good".[64] Haida morphology is mostly suffixing.[65] Prefixation is only used to form "complex verbs", made up of a nominal classifier or instrumental plus a bound root, for instance Skidegate Шаблон:Lang "pick up stick-object" and Шаблон:Lang "pick up several (small objects) together, with tongs", which share the root Шаблон:Lang "pick up".[66] Infixation occurs with some stative verbs derived from classifiers, for instance the classifier Шаблон:Lang plus the stative suffix Шаблон:Lang becomes Шаблон:Lang.[66]

The definite article is suffixed Шаблон:Lang.[67] Some speakers shorten this suffix to Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang.[68] Some nouns, especially verbal nouns ending in long vowels and loan words, take Шаблон:Lang instead, often accompanied by shortening or eliding preceding Шаблон:Lang.[69][nb 3] Haida also has a partitive article Шаблон:Lang, referring to "part of something or ... to one or more objects of a given group or category," e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'he is making a boat (a member of the category of boats).'[70][nb 4] Partitive nouns are never definite, so the two articles never co-occur.[71]

Personal pronouns occur in independent and clitic forms, which may each be in either agentive or objective form; first and second person pronouns also have separate singular and plural forms.[72] The third person pronoun is only used for animates, though for possession Шаблон:Lang (lit. "this one") may be used; after relational nouns and prepositions Шаблон:Lang (lit. "it, that place, there") is used instead.[73]

(Alaskan) Haida pronouns[74]
Indep. Clitic
Agentive Objective Agentive Objective
1 sg. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
pl. Шаблон:Lang / Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang / Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
2 sg. Шаблон:Lang / Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
pl. Шаблон:Lang / Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang / Шаблон:Lang
3 (anim.) Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang / Шаблон:Lang 1
indef. anim. sg. - Шаблон:Lang - Шаблон:Lang
anim. pl. - Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang / Шаблон:Lang 1
inan. - - - Шаблон:Lang
reflex. - - Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang / Шаблон:Lang 2
recip. - - Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang / Шаблон:Lang 1

Шаблон:Smalldiv

Number is not marked in most nouns, but is marked in certain cases in verbs.[75] Relationship nouns do have a plural in with Шаблон:Lang (or for many speakers Шаблон:Lang), e.g. Шаблон:Lang "my grandfathers".[76][nb 5] A few verbs have suppletive plural forms, as in many other North American languages.[75] In addition, Haida has a plural verb suffix Шаблон:Lang (Skidegate) Шаблон:Lang (Masset) Шаблон:Lang / Шаблон:Lang (Kaigani) that is used to indicate that some third person pronoun in the sentence is plural, and to mark plural subject in imperatives.[75][77] The third person pronoun that is pluralized can have any grammatical function, e.g. Шаблон:Lang "I bought all their fish" (Masset).[75]

Most nouns referring to family relationships have special vocative forms, e.g. Шаблон:Lang (Alaskan) Шаблон:Lang (Masset) "grandfather!"[78]

Haida uses so-called "relational nouns" referring to temporal and spatial relations in place of most prepositions or prepositional phrases in English.[76] Many of these are formed with the suffix Шаблон:Lang, or in Alaskan Haida more often Шаблон:Lang.[79] The updated orthography for Alaska Haida has changed the Шаблон:Lang to Шаблон:Lang. For example, Haida Шаблон:Lang / Шаблон:Lang / Шаблон:Lang "surface" likely comes from Шаблон:Lang "back (noun)", and Alaskan Haida Шаблон:Lang "side facing away from the beach, towards the woods" comes from the noun Шаблон:Lang "away from the beach, place in the woods".[79] These contrast with "local nouns", which refer to localities and do not occur with possessive pronouns, e.g. Шаблон:Lang "above, up".[80] Some local nouns have an optional prefix Шаблон:Lang which does not have semantic value.[80] Both relational and local nouns may take the areal suffix Шаблон:Lang to refer to the entire area rather than a particular location, so for example Шаблон:Lang means "[at some place] on its surface" while Шаблон:Lang means "its surface area".[81]

Haida has a small class of true postpositions, some of which may be suffixed to relational nouns.[82] The Alaskan postpositions Шаблон:Lang "to" and Шаблон:Lang "from" (Skidegate Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang) fuse to the preceding word.[82] The Alaskan postposition of Шаблон:Lang has been updated in the current Alaska Haida orthography to Шаблон:Lang. These also fuse with a preceding suffix Шаблон:Lang to become Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang.[82] The updated orthography for Alaska Haida has changed the Шаблон:Lang to Шаблон:Lang. Some postpositions have forms beginning with Шаблон:Lang which are used in some common constructions without a preceding possessive pronoun, and translate into English as a pronoun plus "it", e.g. Шаблон:Lang "he's thinking about it" (with Шаблон:Lang for Шаблон:Lang "to, at").[80]

Haida demonstratives are formed from the bases Шаблон:Lang (close to speaker), Шаблон:Lang (close to listener), Шаблон:Lang (away from both), and Шаблон:Lang (something previously mentioned), which when used independently are place demonstratives.[83] These may be given the following suffixes to create other demonstratives: Шаблон:Lang (singular object), Шаблон:Lang (plural objects), Шаблон:Lang (quantity or time), Шаблон:Lang (place), Шаблон:Lang (plural people), Шаблон:Lang (area), and Шаблон:Lang (manner).[83]

Haida verbs have three basic forms: the present, the past, and the inferential forms.[84] The past and inferential forms are both used to refer to events in the past, but differ in evidentiality: the inferential marks that the speaker was informed of or inferred the event rather than having experienced it personally.[85] The bare present form refer to present-tense events, while future is formed with the suffix Шаблон:Lang, using a present-form verb, e.g. Шаблон:Lang "he will go".[86] The interrogative past form, made from the inferential form by removing final Шаблон:Lang, is used in place of both past and inferential forms in sentences with question words.[87]

There are four classes of verb stems:[nb 6]

Haida verb classes (Kaigani Haida)[88]
ending in "weak" Шаблон:Lang ending in "strong" vowel or Шаблон:Lang ending in consonant other than Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang ending in Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang
stem Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
present Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
past Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
inferential Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
meaning "go, come inside" "be sick" "leave, throw away" "wear"

Habitual aspect uses the suffix Шаблон:Lang in the present and inferential and Шаблон:Lang in the past.[89] Potential mood is marked with Шаблон:Lang and hortative with the particle Шаблон:Lang (in the same position as the tense suffixes).[90] Imperatives are marked with the particle Шаблон:Lang after the first phrase in the sentence, or Шаблон:Lang after the verb word (the verb dropping final weak Шаблон:Lang if present) if there is no non-verbal phrase.[91][nb 7] Verbs are negated with the negative suffix Шаблон:Lang, usually with the negative word Шаблон:Lang "not" in sentence-head position.[92] Verbs drop weak Шаблон:Lang before this suffix, e.g. Шаблон:Lang "he is not doing it that way".[92]

Haida uses instrumental prefixes, classificatory prefixes, and directional suffixes to derive verbs.[93] Some verb stems, known as bound stems, must occur with at least one such affix; for example Шаблон:Lang "strike once" requires an instrumental prefix.[93]

Haida has a large number of classifiers (on the order of 475).[63] These have a limited number of rhyme structures, which relate to each other ideophonically.[63]

Numerals are generally treated as verbs in Haida, e.g. Шаблон:Lang "I have eight children" (literally "my children are eight").[94] For some types of objects, classificatory prefixes are used, e.g. Шаблон:Lang "two land otters" (Шаблон:Lang = small animal or fish).[94]

Nouns and verbs that end in a vowel undergo glide formation (if the final vowel is high) or truncation (otherwise) before vowel-initial prefixes.[15] Some vowel-initial suffixes cause nouns and verbs which are consonant-final and polysyllabic to undergo Final Syllable Shortening (FSS).[15]

Шаблон:Lang "high water" + Шаблон:Lang 'DF' → Шаблон:Lang (Masset)
Шаблон:Lang "foot" + Шаблон:Lang "own" → Шаблон:Lang (Skidegate)
Шаблон:Lang "bladder" + Шаблон:Lang "own" → Шаблон:Lang (Masset)

In Masset Haida, final short vowels in polysyllabic verbs are lengthened in sentence-final position: compare Masset Шаблон:Lang to Skidegate Шаблон:Lang "Give it to me".[65]

Syntax

Haida clauses are verb-final.[95] SOV word order is always possible, while OSV may also be used when the subject is more 'potent' than the object; thus Haida is a direct–inverse language.[96] For example, a human is more potent than a horse, which is more potent than a wagon.[96] Thus the Masset Haida sentence Шаблон:Lang can only mean "truly Bill likes the dog", while Шаблон:Lang can mean either "truly the dog likes Bill" or "truly Bill likes the dog".[96] The determinants of potency are complex and include "acquaintance, social rank, humanness, animacy.. number ... [and] gender was also important at least in the two southern dialects."[97] The following groups are listed in descending order of potency: "known single adult free humans; non-adult and/or enslaved and/or unknown and/or grouped humans; non-human higher animals; inanimates and lower organisms (fish and lower)."[97] Grammatical definiteness does not affect potency.[98]

Pronouns are placed adjacent to the verb and cliticized to it.[99] Their internal order is object–subject, or in causatives object-causee-subject, for example Шаблон:Lang Bill me you punch-direct.that-PA "You told Bill to punch me / Bill told you to punch me".[99][nb 8] Potency is also relevant for pronoun ordering when one pronoun is less potent, for example the indefinite pronoun Шаблон:Lang in Шаблон:Lang = Шаблон:Lang 'she took some.'[100] Sentences with Шаблон:Lang "someone" or Шаблон:Lang "some people" as the subject may be translated as passive sentences in English, for example Шаблон:Lang "he was seen (by more than one person)", literally "some people saw him".[101]

Clitic pronouns are used as complements of verbs, as inalienable possessives, with quantifiers, and in Skidegate Haida as the objects of some postpositions.[72] Independent pronouns are used everywhere else.[72] Agentive pronouns are marked and are only used as subjects of some verbs.[102] Verbs taking agentive subjects are most common in the lexicon (about 69%), followed by those taking objective subjects (29%) and those that may take either (2%).[103] Intransitive verbs of inherent states (e.g. "be old") take an objective subject, while most transitive verbs take agentive subjects (but cf. verbs like Шаблон:Lang "like").[104] With some verbs that may take either, there may be a semantic difference involved, e.g. Шаблон:Lang (Masset) which means "refuse" with agentive subject but not want with objective subject.[105] Enrico (2003) argues that the agentive case indicates planning; thus Haida is essentially an active–stative language, though subject case is also variable in some transitive verbs.[105]

Enclitics are placed after the first phrase in the sentence, usually a noun phrase (except with the imperative clitic Шаблон:Lang which follows a verb phrase).[106] Independent pronouns are used instead of clitic pronouns when modified by a clitic, so for example Шаблон:Lang "he got well" becomes Шаблон:Lang "he also got well" when the clitic Шаблон:Lang 'also, too' is added.[106] The enclitics Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang follow other enclitics.[107]

Focus and less commonly topic are marked with the clitic Шаблон:Lang, placed after a sentence-initial constituent, e.g. Шаблон:Lang (Skidegate) "Bill saw Mary" / "Mary saw Bill", Шаблон:Lang "That one, he was called 'qaagaaШаблон:' ".[108][nb 9] Question words always take this enclitic, for example Шаблон:Lang "what?", Шаблон:Lang "where?", Шаблон:Lang "when?".[109]

There are multiple ways that Haida marks possession. Haida has obligatory possession, a common feature of native North American languages where certain nouns (in Haida, family relationship, body part, and "relational" nouns) must occur with a possessor and cannot stand alone.[110] For example, one can say Шаблон:Lang "my mother" but not *Шаблон:Lang, though one may use a circumlocution like Шаблон:Lang 'one who is a mother'.[111] These nouns are possessed using the bound objective pronouns, which all precede the noun except Шаблон:Lang 'one's own'.[78][nb 10] Included in the class of obligatorily possessed nouns are so-called "relational nouns" and postpositions, which generally translate to prepositions or prepositional phrases in English and refer to temporal and spatial relations.[112]

Relational nouns take some special third person possessive pronouns (Шаблон:Lang rather than Шаблон:Lang), e.g. Шаблон:Lang "in(side) it" (lit. "its interior").[79] Non-obligatory possession nouns are possessed by putting them in definite form after the possessor (a noun or a bound objective pronoun) in partitive form, e.g. Шаблон:Lang "our knife".[113][nb 11] An alternate construction when the possessor is a pronoun is to place an independent objective pronoun after the possessed noun, the latter in definite form, e.g. Шаблон:Lang "my house".[113] The independent objective pronouns also occur by themselves with possessive force, e.g. Шаблон:Lang "mine".[81]

Examples

Phrases in the Alaskan dialect

Kíl 'láa Hello/ goodbye
Sán uu dáng G̱íidang How do you do?
Díi 'láagang I'm fine
Haw'áa Thank you
Dáng díi Ḵuyáadang I love you
Sán uu dáng kya'áang? What's your name?
... hín díi kya'áang My name is ...
Háws dáng díi Ḵíngsaang I'll see you again
Hingáan an hl gu Ḵuyáat-'uu Just love one another
Gíistgaay gúust uu dáng Ḵ'wáalaagang? Whose moiety do you belong to?

Notes

  1. ↑ Keen also translated 3 books of the New Testament into Haida: Acts, published in 1898; and the gospels of Luke and John, published 1899. Шаблон:Cite journal
  2. ↑ This may occur after FSS, for instance Шаблон:Lang 'pig' + Шаблон:Lang 'DF' becomes Шаблон:Lang, see Шаблон:Harvcoltxt.
  3. ↑ In Alaskan Haida, the definite article takes high tone if added to a low-tone syllable, and also takes the high tone from stems ending in a sonorant, nasal, or Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA "unless their vowel is lengthened", e.g. Шаблон:Lang "halibut" becomes Шаблон:Lang. See Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  4. ↑ In Alaskan Haida, Шаблон:Lang takes high tone if the noun does not have a high tone already. See Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  5. ↑ As seen in this example, the suffix takes high tone after a low-tone stem. Also note that the suffix Шаблон:Lang 'one's own' disappears after this suffix. See Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  6. ↑ The stem of a verb, which is "the form which most people will give as the basic form of a verb if you ask them how to say 'to do so and soШаблон:' ", may be determined by removing Шаблон:Lang from the future form of the verb, e.g. Шаблон:Lang "will see" has stem Шаблон:Lang "to see". See Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  7. ↑ This clitic Шаблон:Lang becomes Шаблон:Lang if the previous word ends in a lateral consonant. See Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  8. ↑ When both pronouns are object pronouns, the pronoun translating to a subject in English comes last. See Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  9. ↑ In Masset this is elided after words with final Шаблон:Lang, see Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  10. ↑ The suffix Шаблон:Lang behaves like Шаблон:Lang tonally, thus for instance Шаблон:Lang '[someone's] own mother' has high tone on the suffix.
  11. ↑ An exception to this construction is that Шаблон:Lang is used for "my" instead of the expected *Шаблон:Lang, e.g. Шаблон:Lang "my dog". See Шаблон:Harvcoltxt

References

Шаблон:Reflist

Bibliography

Other publications

Шаблон:Refbegin

  1. Шаблон:Cite book
  2. Шаблон:Cite journal
  3. Шаблон:Cite book
  4. Шаблон:Cite book
  5. Шаблон:Cite encyclopedia
  6. Шаблон:Cite book
  7. Шаблон:Cite journal
  8. Шаблон:Cite journal
  9. Шаблон:Cite book
  10. Шаблон:Cite journal
  11. Enrico, John. 2003. Haida Syntax. (2 volumes). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
  12. Enrico, John. 2005. Haida Dictionary: Skidegate, Masset, and Alaskan Dialects. (2 volumes). Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center; Juneau: Sealaska Heritage Institute.
  13. Fisher, Robin. 1992. "Contact and Conflict: Indian-European Relations in British Columbia, 1774–1890." UBC Press.
  14. Greenberg, J.H. 1987a. Language in the Americas. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
  15. Greenberg, J.H. 1987b. "The Na-Dene Problem". In Greenberg (1987a), pp. 321–330.
  16. Harrison, Charles. 1925. "Ancient Warriors of the North Pacific; The Haidas, Their Laws, Customs and Legends." London, H. F. & G. Witherby.
  17. Шаблон:Cite book
  18. Шаблон:Cite book
  19. Шаблон:Cite book
  20. Шаблон:Cite journal
  21. Шаблон:Cite journal
  22. Шаблон:Cite book
  23. Pinnow. H-J. 1985. Das Haida als Na-Dene Sprache. (Abhandlungen der völkerkundlichen Arbeitsgemeinschaft, Hefte 43–46.) Nortorf, Germany: Völkerkundliche Arbeitsgemeinschaft.
  24. Pinnow. H-J. 2006a. Die Na-Dene-Sprachen im Lichte der Greenberg-Klassifikation. / The Na-Déné Languages in Light of Greenberg's Classification. Zweite erweiterte Auflage / Second revised edition. Bredstedt: Druckerei Lempfert.
  25. Pinnow. H-J. 2006b. Sprachhistorische Untersuchung zur Stellung des Haida als Na-Dene-Sprache. (Unveränderte Neuausgabe aus INDIANA 10, Gedenkschrift Gerdt Kutscher. Teil 2. Berlin 1985. Mit einem Anhang = Die Na-Dene-Sprachen im Verhältnis zum Tibeto-Chinesischen.) Bredstedt: Druckerei Lempfert.
  26. Шаблон:Cite book
  27. Шаблон:Cite journal
  28. Шаблон:Cite journal
  29. Шаблон:Cite book
  30. Swanton, John R. 1905. Haida Texts and Myths. Skidegate dialect. (Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 29.) Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.
  31. Swanton, John R. 1908. Haida Texts. Masset Dialect. (Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. 10, part 2.) Leiden: E. J. Brill.

Шаблон:Refend

External links

Шаблон:Languages of Alaska Шаблон:Languages of Canada Шаблон:Language families

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  1. ↑ Laurie Bauer, 2007, The Linguistics Student's Handbook, Edinburgh
  2. ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
  3. ↑ 3,0 3,1 3,2 3,3 3,4 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  4. ↑ 4,0 4,1 4,2 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  5. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  6. ↑ Lyle Campbell (1997) American Indian Languages, p. 24
  7. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  8. ↑ 8,0 8,1 8,2 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  9. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  10. ↑ 10,0 10,1 10,2 10,3 10,4 10,5 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  11. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  12. ↑ 12,0 12,1 12,2 12,3 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  13. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  14. ↑ 14,0 14,1 14,2 Шаблон:Cite web
  15. ↑ 15,0 15,1 15,2 15,3 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  16. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  17. ↑ Шаблон:Cite episode
  18. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  19. ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
  20. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  21. ↑ 21,0 21,1 21,2 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  22. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  23. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  24. ↑ 24,0 24,1 24,2 24,3 24,4 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  25. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  26. ↑ 26,0 26,1 26,2 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  27. ↑ 27,0 27,1 27,2 27,3 27,4 27,5 27,6 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  28. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  29. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  30. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  31. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  32. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  33. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  34. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  35. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  36. ↑ 36,0 36,1 36,2 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  37. ↑ 37,0 37,1 37,2 37,3 37,4 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  38. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  39. ↑ 39,0 39,1 39,2 39,3 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  40. ↑ 40,0 40,1 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  41. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  42. ↑ 42,0 42,1 42,2 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  43. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  44. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  45. ↑ 45,0 45,1 45,2 45,3 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  46. ↑ 46,0 46,1 46,2 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  47. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  48. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  49. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  50. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  51. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  52. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  53. ↑ Old Testament Stories in the Haida Language on archive.org
  54. ↑ Haida Gospel of Matthew on archive.org
  55. ↑ Haida Gospel of Luke on archive.org
  56. ↑ Haida Gospel of John on archive.org
  57. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  58. ↑ 58,0 58,1 58,2 58,3 58,4 Шаблон:Cite web
  59. ↑ 59,0 59,1 59,2 Шаблон:Cite web
  60. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  61. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  62. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  63. ↑ 63,0 63,1 63,2 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  64. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  65. ↑ 65,0 65,1 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  66. ↑ 66,0 66,1 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  67. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  68. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  69. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  70. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  71. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  72. ↑ 72,0 72,1 72,2 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  73. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  74. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  75. ↑ 75,0 75,1 75,2 75,3 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  76. ↑ 76,0 76,1 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  77. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  78. ↑ 78,0 78,1 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  79. ↑ 79,0 79,1 79,2 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  80. ↑ 80,0 80,1 80,2 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  81. ↑ 81,0 81,1 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  82. ↑ 82,0 82,1 82,2 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  83. ↑ 83,0 83,1 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  84. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  85. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  86. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  87. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  88. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  89. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  90. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  91. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  92. ↑ 92,0 92,1 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  93. ↑ 93,0 93,1 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  94. ↑ 94,0 94,1 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  95. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  96. ↑ 96,0 96,1 96,2 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  97. ↑ 97,0 97,1 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  98. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  99. ↑ 99,0 99,1 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  100. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  101. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  102. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  103. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  104. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  105. ↑ 105,0 105,1 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  106. ↑ 106,0 106,1 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  107. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  108. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  109. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  110. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  111. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  112. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  113. ↑ 113,0 113,1 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
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