Английская Википедия:Haitian Vodou
Haitian VodouШаблон:Efn (Шаблон:IPAc-en) is an African diasporic religion that developed in Haiti between the 16th and 19th centuries. It arose through a process of syncretism between several traditional religions of West and Central Africa and Roman Catholicism. There is no central authority in control of the religion and much diversity exists among practitioners, who are known as Vodouists, Vodouisants, or Serviteurs.
Vodou teaches the existence of a transcendent creator divinity, Bondye, under whom are spirits known as Шаблон:Lang. Typically deriving their names and attributes from traditional West and Central African deities, they are equated with Roman Catholic saints. The Шаблон:Lang divide into different groups, the Шаблон:Lang ("nations"), most notably the Rada and the Petwo, about whom various myths and stories are told. This theology has been labelled both monotheistic and polytheistic. An initiatory tradition, Vodouists commonly venerate the Шаблон:Lang at an Шаблон:Lang (temple), run by an Шаблон:Lang (priest) or Шаблон:Lang (priestess). Alternatively, Vodou is also practised within family groups or in secret societies like the Bizango. A central ritual involves practitioners drumming, singing, and dancing to encourage a Шаблон:Lang to possess one of their members and thus communicate with them. Offerings to the Шаблон:Lang, and to spirits of the dead, include fruit, liquor, and sacrificed animals. Several forms of divination are utilized to decipher messages from the Шаблон:Lang. Healing rituals and the preparation of herbal remedies and talismans also play a prominent role.
Vodou developed among Afro-Haitian communities amid the Atlantic slave trade of the 16th to 19th centuries. Its structure arose from the blending of the traditional religions of those enslaved West and Central Africans brought to the island of Hispaniola, among them Kongo, Fon, and Yoruba. There, it absorbed influences from the culture of the French colonialists who controlled the colony of Saint-Domingue, most notably Roman Catholicism but also Freemasonry. Many Vodouists were involved in the Haitian Revolution of 1791 to 1801 which overthrew the French colonial government, abolished slavery, and transformed Saint-Domingue into the republic of Haiti. The Roman Catholic Church left for several decades following the Revolution, allowing Vodou to become Haiti's dominant religion. In the 20th century, growing emigration spread Vodou abroad. The late 20th century saw growing links between Vodou and related traditions in West Africa and the Americas, such as Cuban Santería and Brazilian Candomblé, while some practitioners influenced by the Négritude movement have sought to remove Roman Catholic influences.
Most Haitians practice both Vodou and Roman Catholicism, seeing no contradiction in pursuing the two different systems simultaneously. Smaller Vodouist communities exist elsewhere, especially among Haitian diasporas in Cuba and the United States. Both in Haiti and abroad Vodou has spread beyond its Afro-Haitian origins and is practiced by individuals of various ethnicities. Having faced much criticism through its history, Vodou has been described as one of the world's most misunderstood religions.
Definitions and terminology
Vodou is a religion.Шаблон:Sfnm More specifically, scholars have characterised it as an Afro-Haitian religion,Шаблон:Sfn and as Haiti's "national religion".Шаблон:Sfnm Its main structure derives from the African traditional religions of West and Central Africa which were brought to Haiti by enslaved Africans between the 16th and 19th centuries.Шаблон:Sfn Of these, the greatest influences came from the Fon and Bakongo peoples.Шаблон:Sfn On the island, these African religions mixed with the iconography of European-derived traditions such as Roman Catholicism and Freemasonry,Шаблон:Sfnm taking the form of Vodou around the mid-18th century.Шаблон:Sfn In combining varied influences, Vodou has often been described as syncretic,Шаблон:Sfnm or a "symbiosis",Шаблон:Sfnm a religion exhibiting diverse cultural influences.Шаблон:Sfn
As formed in Haiti, Vodou represented "a new religion",Шаблон:Sfnm "a creolized New World system",Шаблон:Sfn one that differs in many ways from African traditional religions.Шаблон:Sfn The scholar Leslie Desmangles therefore called it an "African-derived tradition",Шаблон:Sfn Ina J. Fandrich termed it a "neo-African religion",Шаблон:Sfn and Markel Thylefors called it an "Afro-Latin American religion".Шаблон:Sfn Several other African diasporic religions found in the Americas formed in a similar way, and owing to their shared origins in West African traditional religion, Vodou has been characterized as a "sister religion" of Cuban Santería and Brazilian Candomblé.Шаблон:Sfn
Vodou has no central institutional authority,Шаблон:Sfnm no single leader,Шаблон:Sfnm and no developed body of doctrine.Шаблон:Sfn It thus has no orthodoxy,Шаблон:Sfnm no central liturgy,Шаблон:Sfnm and no formal creed.Шаблон:Sfnm Developing over the course of several centuries,Шаблон:Sfnm it has changed over time.Шаблон:Sfn It displays variation at both the regional and local levelШаблон:Sfnm—including variation between Haiti and the Haitian diasporaШаблон:Sfn—as well as among different congregations.Шаблон:Sfnm It is practiced domestically, by families on their land, but also by congregations meeting communally,Шаблон:Sfn with the latter termed "temple Vodou".Шаблон:Sfn
In Haitian culture, religions are not generally deemed totally autonomous. Many Haitians thus practice both Vodou and Roman Catholicism,Шаблон:Sfnm with Vodouists usually regarding themselves as Roman Catholics.Шаблон:Sfnm In Haiti, Vodouists have also practiced Mormonism,Шаблон:Sfn or been involved in Freemasonry;Шаблон:Sfn in Cuba they have involved themselves in Santería,Шаблон:Sfnm and in the United States with modern Paganism.Шаблон:Sfn Vodou has also absorbed elements from other contexts; in Cuba, some Vodouists have adopted elements from Spiritism.Шаблон:Sfn Influenced by the Négritude movement, other Vodouists have sought to remove Roman Catholic and other European influences from their practice of Vodou.Шаблон:Sfn
Terminology
In English, Vodou's practitioners are termed Vodouists;Шаблон:Sfnm in French and Haitian Creole, they are called Шаблон:LangШаблон:Sfnm or Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn Another term for adherents is sèvitè (Шаблон:Lang, "devotees"),Шаблон:Sfn reflecting their self-description as people who Шаблон:Lang ("serve the Шаблон:Lang"), the supernatural beings that play a central role in Vodou.Шаблон:Sfnm
Many words used in the religion derive from the Fon language of West Africa;Шаблон:Sfnm this includes the word Шаблон:Lang itself.Шаблон:Sfn First recorded in the 1658 Doctrina Christiana,Шаблон:Sfn the Fon word Шаблон:Lang was used in the West African kingdom of Dahomey to signify a spirit or deity.Шаблон:Sfnm In Haitian Creole, Шаблон:Lang came to designate a specific style of dance and drumming,Шаблон:Sfnm before outsiders to the religion adopted it as a generic term for much Afro-Haitian religion.Шаблон:Sfnm The word Шаблон:Lang now encompasses "a variety of Haiti's African-derived religious traditions and practices",Шаблон:Sfn incorporating "a bundle of practices that practitioners themselves do not aggregate".Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Lang is thus a term primarily used by scholars and outsiders to the religion;Шаблон:Sfn many practitioners describe their belief system with the term Шаблон:Lang, which especially denotes a moral philosophy and ethical code regarding how to live and to serve the spirits.Шаблон:Sfn
Шаблон:Lang is the common spelling for the religion among scholars, in official Haitian Creole orthography, and by the United States Library of Congress.Шаблон:Sfnm Some scholars prefer the spellings Vodoun, Voudoun, or Vodun,Шаблон:Sfnm while in French the spellings Шаблон:LangШаблон:Sfn or Шаблон:Lang also appear.Шаблон:Sfnm The spelling Voodoo, once common, is now generally avoided by practitioners and scholars when referring to the Haitian religion.Шаблон:Sfn This is both to avoid confusion with Louisiana Voodoo, a related but distinct tradition,Шаблон:Sfnm and to distinguish it from the negative connotations that the term Voodoo has in Western popular culture.Шаблон:Sfn
Beliefs
Bondye and the Шаблон:Lang
Vodou is monotheistic,Шаблон:Sfnm teaching the existence of a single supreme God.Шаблон:Sfnm This entity is called Bondye or Bonié,Шаблон:Sfnm a name deriving from the French term Шаблон:Lang ("Good God").Шаблон:Sfnm Another term for it is the Шаблон:Lang,Шаблон:Sfnm borrowed from Freemasonry.Шаблон:Sfn For Vodouists, Bondye is the ultimate source of power,Шаблон:Sfn the creator of the universe,Шаблон:Sfnm and the maintainer of cosmic order.Шаблон:Sfn Haitians frequently use the phrase Шаблон:Lang ("if Bondye wishes"), suggesting a belief that all things occur in accordance with this divinity's will.Шаблон:Sfnm Vodouists regard Bondye as being transcendent and remote;Шаблон:Sfnm as the God is uninvolved in human affairs,Шаблон:Sfnm they see little point in approaching it directly.Шаблон:Sfn While Vodouists often equate Bondye with the Christian God,Шаблон:Sfn Vodou does not incorporate belief in a powerful antagonist that opposes the supreme being akin to the Christian notion of Satan.Шаблон:Sfn
Vodou has also been characterized as polytheistic.Шаблон:Sfn It teaches the existence of beings called the Шаблон:Lang,Шаблон:Sfnm a term varyingly translated into English as "spirits", "gods", or "geniuses".Шаблон:Sfn These Шаблон:Lang are also known as the Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, and Шаблон:Lang,Шаблон:Sfn and are sometimes equated with the angels of Christian cosmology.Шаблон:Sfn Vodou teaches that there are over a thousand Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn Serving as Bondye's intermediaries,Шаблон:Sfnm they communicate with humans through their dreams or by directly possessing them.Шаблон:Sfn Vodouists believe the Шаблон:Lang are capable of offering people help, protection, and counsel in return for ritual service.Шаблон:Sfnm Each Шаблон:Lang has its own personality,Шаблон:Sfn and is associated with specific colors,Шаблон:Sfnm days of the week,Шаблон:Sfn and objects.Шаблон:Sfn They are however not seen as moral exemplars for practitioners to imitate.Шаблон:Sfn The Шаблон:Lang can be either loyal or capricious in their dealings with their devotees;Шаблон:Sfn they are easily offended, for instance if offered food they dislike.Шаблон:Sfn When angered, the Шаблон:Lang are believed to remove their protection from their devotees, or to inflict misfortune, illness, or madness on an individual.Шаблон:Sfn
Although there are exceptions, most Шаблон:Lang names derive from the Fon and Yoruba languages.Шаблон:Sfn New Шаблон:Lang are nevertheless added to the pantheon, with both talismans and certain humans thought capable of becoming Шаблон:Lang,Шаблон:Sfn in the latter case through their strength of personality or power.Шаблон:Sfn Vodouists often refer to the Шаблон:Lang living in the sea or in rivers,Шаблон:Sfn or alternatively in Guinea,Шаблон:Sfn a term encompassing a generalized understanding of Africa as the ancestral land of the Haitian people.Шаблон:Sfn
The Шаблон:Lang
The Шаблон:Lang divide into Шаблон:Lang or "nations".Шаблон:Sfnm This classificatory system derives from the way in which enslaved Africans were divided into "nations" upon their arrival in Haiti, usually based on their African port of departure rather than their ethno-cultural identity.Шаблон:Sfn The term Шаблон:Lang (family) is sometimes used synonymously with Шаблон:Lang or alternatively as a sub-division of the latter category.Шаблон:Sfn It is often claimed that there are 17 Шаблон:Lang,Шаблон:Sfnm of which the Rada and the Petwo are the largest and most dominant.Шаблон:Sfnm
The Rada Шаблон:Lang are seen as being 'cool'; the Petwo Шаблон:Lang as 'hot'.Шаблон:Sfnm This means that the Rada are Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang, or sweet-tempered, while the Petwo are Шаблон:Lang, indicating that they can be forceful or violent and are associated with fire.Шаблон:Sfn Whereas the Rada are generally righteous, their Petwo counterparts are more morally ambiguous and associated with issues like money.Шаблон:Sfn The Rada owe more to Dahomeyan and Yoruba influences;Шаблон:Sfnm their name probably comes from Arada, a city in the Dahomey kingdom of West Africa.Шаблон:Sfnm The Petwo derive largely from Kongo religion,Шаблон:Sfnm although also exhibit Dahomeyan and creolised influences.Шаблон:Sfn Some Шаблон:Lang exist Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang, meaning that they are "in two waters" and are served in both Rada and Petwo rituals.Шаблон:Sfnm
In Rada ceremonies, the first Шаблон:Lang saluted is Papa Legba, also known as Legba.Шаблон:Sfnm Depicted as a feeble old man wearing rags and using a crutch,Шаблон:Sfnm Papa Legba is the protector of gates and fences and thus of the home, as well as of roads, paths, and crossroads.Шаблон:Sfnm In Petwo rites, the first Шаблон:Lang invoked is usually Mèt Kalfou.Шаблон:Sfn The second Шаблон:Lang usually greeted are the Marasa or sacred twins.Шаблон:Sfn In Vodou, every Шаблон:Lang has its own Marasa,Шаблон:Sfn reflecting a belief that twins have special powers.Шаблон:Sfnm Agwe, also known as Agwe-taroyo, is associated with aquatic life, and protector of ships and fishermen.Шаблон:Sfnm Agwe is believed to rule the sea with his consort, La Sirène.Шаблон:Sfn She is a mermaid or siren, and is sometimes described as Èzili of the Waters because she is believed to bring good luck and wealth from the sea.Шаблон:Sfn Èzili Freda or Erzuli Freda is the Шаблон:Lang of love and luxury, personifying feminine beauty and grace.Шаблон:Sfnm Ezili Dantor is a Шаблон:Lang who takes the form of a peasant woman.Шаблон:Sfnm
Azaka is the Шаблон:Lang of crops and agriculture,Шаблон:Sfnm usually addressed as "Papa" or "Cousin".Шаблон:Sfnm His consort is the female Шаблон:Lang Kouzinn.Шаблон:Sfn Loco is the Шаблон:Lang of vegetation, and because he is seen to give healing properties to various plant species is considered the Шаблон:Lang of healing too.Шаблон:Sfn Ogou is a warrior Шаблон:Lang,Шаблон:Sfnm associated with weapons.Шаблон:Sfnm Sogbo is a Шаблон:Lang associated with lightning,Шаблон:Sfn while his companion, Bade, is associated with the wind.Шаблон:Sfn Danbala is a serpent Шаблон:Lang and is associated with water, being believed to frequent rivers, springs, and marshes;Шаблон:Sfnm he is one of the most popular deities in the pantheon.Шаблон:Sfn Danbala and his consort Ayida-Weddo are often depicted as a pair of intertwining snakes.Шаблон:Sfnm The Simbi are understood as the guardians of fountains and marshes.Шаблон:Sfn
Usually seen as a Шаблон:Lang rather than a Шаблон:Lang,Шаблон:Sfn the Gede are associated with the realm of the dead.Шаблон:Sfnm The head of the family is Baron Samedi ("Baron Saturday");Шаблон:Sfnm his presence is often marked out in a Haitian cemetery with a large cross.Шаблон:Sfnm His consort is Gran Brigit,Шаблон:Sfnm who has authority over cemeteries and is mother to many of the other Gede.Шаблон:Sfn The Gede regularly satirise the ruling authorities,Шаблон:Sfn and are welcomed to rituals as they are thought to bring merriment.Шаблон:Sfnm The Gede's symbol is an erect penis,Шаблон:Sfn while the Шаблон:Lang dance associated with them involves sexual-style thrusting,Шаблон:Sfnm and those possessed by these lwa typically make sexual innuendos.Шаблон:Sfnm
The Шаблон:Lang and the saints
Most Шаблон:Lang are associated with specific Roman Catholic saints.Шаблон:Sfnm These links are reliant on "analogies between their respective functions";Шаблон:Sfn Azaka, the Шаблон:Lang of agriculture, is for instance associated with Saint Isidore the farmer.Шаблон:Sfnm Similarly, because he is understood as the "key" to the spirit world, Papa Legba is typically associated with Saint Peter, who is visually depicted holding keys in traditional Roman Catholic imagery.Шаблон:Sfnm The Шаблон:Lang of love and luxury, Èzili Freda, is associated with Mater Dolorosa.Шаблон:Sfnm Danbala the serpent is often equated with Saint Patrick, who is traditionally depicted with snakes, or with Moses, whose staff turned into serpents.Шаблон:Sfnm The Marasa, or sacred twins, are typically equated with the twin saints Cosmos and Damian.Шаблон:Sfnm
Scholars like Desmangles have argued that Vodouists originally adopted the Roman Catholic saints to conceal Шаблон:Lang worship when the latter was illegal during the colonial period.Шаблон:Sfn Observing Vodou in the latter part of the 20th century, Donald J. Cosentino argued that by that point, the use of Roman Catholic saints reflected the genuine devotional expression of many Vodouists.Шаблон:Sfn The scholar Marc A. Christophe concurred, stating that most modern Vodouists genuinely see the saints and Шаблон:Lang as one, reflecting Vodou's "all-inclusive and harmonizing characteristics".Шаблон:Sfn Many Vodouists possess chromolithographic prints of the saints,Шаблон:Sfn while images of these Christian figures can also be found on temple walls,Шаблон:Sfnm and on the Шаблон:Lang flags used in Vodou ritual.Шаблон:Sfn Vodouists also often adopt and reinterpret Biblical stories and theorise about the nature of Jesus of Nazareth.Шаблон:Sfn
Soul and afterlife
Vodou holds that Bondye created humanity in its image, fashioning humans from water and clay.Шаблон:Sfn It teaches the existence of a soul, the Шаблон:Lang,Шаблон:Sfn or the Шаблон:Lang,Шаблон:Sfnm which is divided in two parts.Шаблон:Sfnm One of these is the Шаблон:Lang ("little good angel"), understood as the conscience that allows an individual to engage in self-reflection and self-criticism. The other part is the Шаблон:Lang ("big good angel") and this constitutes the psyche, source of memory, intelligence, and personhood.Шаблон:Sfnm Both parts are believed to reside within an individual's head,Шаблон:Sfn although the Шаблон:Lang is thought capable of leaving the head and travelling while a person sleeps.Шаблон:Sfn
Vodouists believe that every individual is connected to a specific Шаблон:Lang, regarded as their Шаблон:Lang (master of the head).Шаблон:Sfnm They believe that this Шаблон:Lang informs the individual's personality.Шаблон:Sfn Vodou holds that the identity of a person's tutelary Шаблон:Lang can be identified through divination or by consulting Шаблон:Lang when they possess other humans.Шаблон:Sfn Some of the religion's priests and priestesses are deemed to have "the gift of eyes", capable of seeing the identity of a person's tutelary Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn
Vodou holds that Bondye has preordained the time of everyone's death,Шаблон:Sfn but does not teach the existence of an afterlife realm akin to the Christian ideas of heaven and hell.Шаблон:Sfnm Instead, a common belief is that at bodily death, the Шаблон:Lang join the Ginen, or ancestral spirits, while the Шаблон:Lang proceeds to face judgement before Bondye.Шаблон:Sfn This idea of judgement is more common in urban areas, having been influenced by Roman Catholicism, while in the Haitian mountains it is more common for Vodouists to believe that the Шаблон:Lang dissolves into the navel of the earth nine days after death.Шаблон:Sfn The land of the Ginen is often identified as being located beneath the sea, under the earth, or above the sky.Шаблон:Sfn Some Vodouists believe that the Шаблон:Lang stays in the land of the Ginen for a year and a day before being absorbed into the Gede family.Шаблон:Sfn However, Vodouists usually distinguish the spirits of the dead from the Gede proper, for the latter are Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn Vodou also teaches that the dead continue to participate in human affairs,Шаблон:Sfnm with these spirits often complaining that they suffer from hunger, cold, and damp,Шаблон:Sfn and thus requiring sacrifices from the living.Шаблон:Sfn
Morality, ethics, and gender roles
Vodou ethical standards correspond to its sense of cosmological order,Шаблон:Sfn with a belief in the interdependence of things playing a role in Vodou approaches to ethical issues.Шаблон:Sfn Serving the Шаблон:Lang is central to Vodou and its moral codes reflect the reciprocal relationship that practitioners have with these spirits;Шаблон:Sfn for Vodouists, virtue is maintained by ensuring a responsible relationship with the Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn Vodou also promotes a belief in destiny, although individuals are still deemed to have freedom of choice.Шаблон:Sfn This view of destiny has been interpreted as encouraging a fatalistic outlook,Шаблон:Sfn something that the religion's critics, especially from Christian backgrounds, have argued has discouraged Vodouists from improving their society.Шаблон:Sfnm This has been extended into an argument that Vodou is responsible for Haiti's poverty,Шаблон:Sfn a view that in turn has been accused of being rooted in European colonial prejudices towards Africans.Шаблон:Sfn
Although Vodou permeates every aspect of its adherent's lives,Шаблон:Sfnm it offers no prescriptive code of ethics.Шаблон:Sfnm Rather than being rule-based, Vodou morality is deemed contextual to the situation,Шаблон:Sfn with no clear binary division between good and evil.Шаблон:Sfn Vodou reflects people's everyday concerns, focusing on techniques for mitigating illness and misfortune;Шаблон:Sfn doing what one needs to in order to survive is considered a high ethic.Шаблон:Sfn Among Vodouists, a moral person is regarded as someone who lives in tune with their character and that of their tutelary Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn In general, acts that reinforce Bondye's power are deemed good; those that undermine it are seen as bad.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Lang, meaning the use of supernatural powers for self-serving and malevolent ends, are usually thought bad.Шаблон:Sfn The term is quite flexible; it is usually used to denigrate other Vodouists, although some practitioners have used it as a self-descriptor in reference to Petwo rites.Шаблон:Sfn
The extended family is of importance in Haitian society,Шаблон:Sfn with Vodou reinforcing family ties,Шаблон:Sfn and emphasising respect for the elderly.Шаблон:Sfn Vodou has been described as reflecting misogynistic elements of Haitian culture while simultaneously empowering women by allowing them to become priestesses,Шаблон:Sfn through which they can lay claim to moral authority as social and spiritual leaders.Шаблон:Sfn Vodou is also considered sympathetic to gay people,Шаблон:Sfn with many gay and bisexual individuals holding status as Vodou priests and priestesses,Шаблон:Sfnm and some groups having largely gay congregations.Шаблон:Sfn Some Vodouists state that the Шаблон:Lang determined their sexual orientation, turning them homosexual,Шаблон:Sfn while the Шаблон:Lang Èzili is seen as the patron of Шаблон:Lang (gay men).Шаблон:Sfn
Practices
The anthropologist Alfred Métraux described Vodou as "a practical and utilitarian religion".Шаблон:Sfn Its practices largely revolve around interactions with the Шаблон:Lang,Шаблон:Sfn and incorporate song, drumming, dance, prayer, possession, and animal sacrifice.Шаблон:Sfnm Practitioners gather together for Шаблон:Lang (services) in which they commune with the Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfnm Ceremonies for a particular Шаблон:Lang often coincide with the feast day of the Roman Catholic saint which that Шаблон:Lang is associated with.Шаблон:Sfnm The mastery of ritual forms is considered imperative in Vodou.Шаблон:Sfn The purpose of ritual is to Шаблон:Lang ("heat things up"), thus bringing about change, whether that be to remove barriers or to facilitate healing.Шаблон:Sfn
Secrecy is important in Vodou.Шаблон:Sfnm It is an initiatory tradition,Шаблон:Sfn operating through a system of graded induction or initiation.Шаблон:Sfn When an individual agrees to serve a Шаблон:Lang, it is deemed a lifelong commitment.Шаблон:Sfn Vodou has a strong oral culture, and its teachings are primarily disseminated through oral transmission,Шаблон:Sfn although many practitioners began to use texts after they appeared in the mid-20th century.Шаблон:Sfn The ritual language used in Vodou is termed Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfnm Unlike in Santería and Candomblé, which employ Yoruba as a liturgical language not understood by most practitioners, in Vodou the liturgies are predominantly in Haitian Creole, the everyday language of most Vodouists.Шаблон:Sfn
Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang
Male priests are referred to as an Шаблон:Lang, alternatively spelled Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang,Шаблон:Sfnm or a Шаблон:Lang ("Vodou priest").Шаблон:Sfn Priestesses are termed Шаблон:Lang, alternatively spelled Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfnm Шаблон:Lang numerically dominate in rural Haiti, while there is a more equitable balance of priests and priestesses in urban areas.Шаблон:Sfn The Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang are tasked with organising liturgies, preparing initiations, offering consultations with clients using divination, and preparing remedies for the sick.Шаблон:Sfn There is no priestly hierarchy, with Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang being largely self-sufficient.Шаблон:Sfn In many cases, the role is hereditary.Шаблон:Sfn Historical evidence suggests that the role of the Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang intensified over the course of the 20th century.Шаблон:Sfn As a result, "temple Vodou" is now more common in rural areas of Haiti than it was in historical periods.Шаблон:Sfn
Vodou teaches that the Шаблон:Lang call an individual to become an Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang,Шаблон:Sfn and if the latter refuses then misfortune may befall them.Шаблон:Sfnm A prospective Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang must normally rise through the other roles in a Vodou congregation before undergoing an apprenticeship with a pre-existing Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang lasting several months or years.Шаблон:Sfn After this apprenticeship, they undergo an initiation ceremony, the details of which are kept secret from non-initiates.Шаблон:Sfn Other Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang do not undergo any apprenticeship, but claim that they have gained their training directly from the Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfnm Their authenticity is often challenged, and they are referred to as Шаблон:Lang, a term bearing some disparaging connotations.Шаблон:Sfn Becoming an Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang is expensive, often requiring the purchase of ritual paraphernalia and land on which to build a temple.Шаблон:Sfn To finance this, many save up for a long time.Шаблон:Sfn
Vodouists believe that the Шаблон:Lang's role is modelled on the Шаблон:Lang Loco;Шаблон:Sfnm in Vodou mythology, he was the first Шаблон:Lang and his consort Ayizan the first Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn The Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang are expected to display the power of second sight,Шаблон:Sfn something regarded as a gift from Bondye that can be revealed to the individual through visions or dreams.Шаблон:Sfn Many priests and priestesses are often attributed fantastical powers in stories told about them,Шаблон:Sfn and may bolster their status with claims to have received revelations from the Шаблон:Lang, sometimes via visits to the Шаблон:Lang's own abode.Шаблон:Sfn
There is often bitter competition between different Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn Their main income derives from healing the sick, supplemented with payments received for overseeing initiations and selling talismans and amulets.Шаблон:Sfn In many cases, Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang become wealthier than their clients.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang are generally powerful and well-respected members of Haitian society.Шаблон:Sfn Being an Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang provides an individual with both social status and material profit,Шаблон:Sfn although the fame and reputation of individual priests and priestesses can vary widely.Шаблон:Sfn Respected Vodou priests and priestesses are often literate in a society where semi-literacy and illiteracy are common.Шаблон:Sfn They can recite from printed texts and write letters for illiterate members of their community.Шаблон:Sfn Owing to their prominence in a community, the Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang can effectively become political leaders,Шаблон:Sfn or otherwise exert an influence on local politics.Шаблон:Sfn
The Шаблон:Lang
A Vodou temple is called an Шаблон:Lang,Шаблон:Sfnm varyingly spelled Шаблон:Lang,Шаблон:Sfnm Шаблон:Lang,Шаблон:Sfn or Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn An alternative term is Шаблон:Lang, although the connotations of this term vary regionally in Haiti.Шаблон:Sfn Most communal Vodou activities centre around this Шаблон:Lang,Шаблон:Sfn forming what is called "temple Vodou".Шаблон:Sfn The size and shape of Шаблон:Lang vary, from basic shacks to more lavish structures, the latter being more common in Port-au-Prince.Шаблон:Sfn Their designs are dependent on the resources and tastes of the Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang running them.Шаблон:Sfn Each Шаблон:Lang is autonomous,Шаблон:Sfnm and often has its own unique customs.Шаблон:Sfn
The main ceremonial room in the Шаблон:Lang is the Шаблон:Lang,Шаблон:Sfnm understood as a microcosmic representation of the cosmos.Шаблон:Sfn In the Шаблон:Lang, brightly painted posts hold up the roof;Шаблон:Sfnm the central post is the Шаблон:Lang,Шаблон:Sfnm which is used as a pivot during ritual dances and the pillar through which the Шаблон:Lang enter the room during ceremonies.Шаблон:Sfnm It is around this central post that offerings, including both Шаблон:Lang patterns and animal sacrifices, are made.Шаблон:Sfn However, in the Haitian diaspora many Vodouists perform their rites in basements, where no Шаблон:Lang are available.Шаблон:Sfn The Шаблон:Lang typically has an earthen floor, allowing libations to the Шаблон:Lang to drain directly into the soil;Шаблон:Sfn where this is not possible, libations are poured into an enamel basin.Шаблон:Sfn Some Шаблон:Lang include seating around the walls.Шаблон:Sfn
Adjacent rooms in the Шаблон:Lang include the Шаблон:Lang, also known as the Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, or Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfnm This is where stonework altars, known as Шаблон:Lang, stand against the wall or are arranged in tiers.Шаблон:Sfnm Also present may be a sink dedicated to the Шаблон:Lang Danbala-Wedo.Шаблон:Sfnm The Шаблон:Lang is also used to store clothing that will be worn by those possessed by the Шаблон:Lang during rituals.Шаблон:Sfnm If space is available, the Шаблон:Lang may also have a room set aside for the patron Шаблон:Lang of that temple.Шаблон:Sfn Many Шаблон:Lang have a room known as the Шаблон:Lang in which the initiate is confined during their initiatory ceremony.Шаблон:Sfnm Every Шаблон:Lang usually has a room or corner of a room devoted to Erzuli Freda.Шаблон:Sfnm Some Шаблон:Lang will also have additional rooms in which the Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang lives.Шаблон:Sfn
The area around the Шаблон:Lang often contains objects dedicated to particular Шаблон:Lang, such as a pool of water for Danbala, a black cross for Baron Samedi, and a Шаблон:Lang (iron bar) embedded in a brazier for Criminel.Шаблон:Sfn Sacred trees, known as Шаблон:Lang, sometimes mark the Шаблон:Lang's external boundary.Шаблон:Sfn Hanging from these trees can be found Шаблон:Lang straw sacks, strips of material, and animal skulls.Шаблон:Sfn Various animals, particularly birds but also some mammal species such as goats, are sometimes kept within the perimeter of the Шаблон:Lang for use as sacrifices.Шаблон:Sfn
The congregation
Forming a spiritual community of practitioners,Шаблон:Sfn the Шаблон:Lang's congregation are known as the Шаблон:Lang (children of the house).Шаблон:Sfnm They worship under the authority of an Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang,Шаблон:Sfn below whom is ranked the Шаблон:Lang, individuals who make a lifetime commitment to serving the Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfnm Members of either sex can join the Шаблон:Lang, although most are female.Шаблон:Sfnm The Шаблон:Lang's duties include cleaning the Шаблон:Lang, sacrificing animals, and taking part in the dances at which they must be prepared to be possessed by a Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn The Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang conduct initiatory ceremonies whereby people become Шаблон:Lang,Шаблон:Sfn oversee their training,Шаблон:Sfn and act as their counsellor, healer, and protector.Шаблон:Sfn In turn, the Шаблон:Lang are expected to be obedient to their Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn
One of the Шаблон:Lang becomes the Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang, the mistress of the choir. They are responsible for overseeing the liturgical singing and shaking the Шаблон:Lang rattle which dictates the rhythm during ceremonies.Шаблон:Sfnm They are aided by the Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, or quartermaster, who is charged with overseeing offerings and keeping order during the rites.Шаблон:Sfn Another figure is Шаблон:Lang (the confidant), the Шаблон:Lang who oversees the Шаблон:Lang's administrative functions.Шаблон:Sfnm Congregants often form a Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang, support society), through which subscriptions are paid to help maintain the Шаблон:Lang and organize the major religious feasts.Шаблон:Sfn
In rural areas especially, a congregation may consist of an extended family.Шаблон:Sfn Here, the priest will often be the patriarch of that family.Шаблон:Sfn Families, particularly in rural areas, often believe that through their Шаблон:Lang (ancestors) they are tied to a Шаблон:Lang (original founder); their descent from this figure is seen as giving them their inheritance both of the land and of familial spirits.Шаблон:Sfn In other examples, particularly in urban areas, an Шаблон:Lang can act as an initiatory family.Шаблон:Sfnm A priest becomes the Шаблон:Lang ("father") while the priestess becomes the Шаблон:Lang ("mother") to the initiate;Шаблон:Sfnm the initiate becomes their initiator's Шаблон:Lang (spiritual child).Шаблон:Sfn Those who share an initiator refer to themselves as "brother" and "sister."Шаблон:Sfn Individuals may join a particular Шаблон:Lang because it exists in their locality or because their family are already members. Alternatively, it may be that the Шаблон:Lang places particular focus on a Шаблон:Lang whom they are devoted to, or that they are impressed by the Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang who runs the Шаблон:Lang in question, perhaps having been treated by them.Шаблон:Sfn
Initiation
Vodou is hierarchical and includes a series of initiations.Шаблон:Sfnm There are typically four levels of initiation,Шаблон:Sfnm the fourth of which makes someone an Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn There is much variation in what these initiation ceremonies entail,Шаблон:Sfn and the details are kept secret.Шаблон:Sfn Each initiatory stage is associated with a state of mind called a Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang or knowledge).Шаблон:Sfnm Successive initiations are required to move through the various Шаблон:Lang,Шаблон:Sfn and it is in these Шаблон:Lang that priestly power is believed to reside.Шаблон:Sfn
The first initiation rite is the Шаблон:Lang;Шаблон:Sfnm this term also describes the initiate themselves.Шаблон:Sfn Initiation is generally expensive,Шаблон:Sfnm complex,Шаблон:Sfn and requires significant preparation.Шаблон:Sfn Prospective initiates are for instance required to memorise many songs and learn the characteristics of various Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn Vodouists believe the Шаблон:Lang may encourage an individual towards initiation, bringing misfortune upon them if they refuse.Шаблон:Sfn
Initiation will often be preceded by bathing in special preparations.Шаблон:Sfn The first part of the initiation rite is known as the Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang, and is marked by salutations and offerings to the Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfnm It begins with the Шаблон:Lang, a ceremony in which palm leaves are frayed and then worn by the initiate.Шаблон:Sfn Sometimes the Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang ("beating war") is performed instead, designed to beat away the old.Шаблон:Sfn During the rite, the initiate comes to be regarded as the child of a particular Шаблон:Lang, their Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn
This is followed by a period of seclusion within the Шаблон:Lang known as the Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn A deliberately uncomfortable experience,Шаблон:Sfn it involves the initiate sleeping on a mat on the floor, often with a stone for a pillow.Шаблон:Sfn They wear a white tunic,Шаблон:Sfn and a specific salt-free diet is followed.Шаблон:Sfn It includes a Шаблон:Lang ("head washing") to prepare the initiate for having the Шаблон:Lang enter and reside in their head.Шаблон:Sfnm Voudoists believe that one of the two parts of the human soul, the Шаблон:Lang, is removed from the initiate's head, thus making space for the Шаблон:Lang to enter and reside there.Шаблон:Sfn
The initiation ceremony requires the preparation of Шаблон:Lang (head pots), usually white porcelain cups with a lid in which a range of items are placed, including hair, food, herbs, and oils. These are regarded as a home for the spirits.Шаблон:Sfnm After the period of seclusion in the Шаблон:Lang, the new initiate is brought out and presented to the congregation; they are now referred to as Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn When the new initiate is presented to the rest of the community, they carry their Шаблон:Lang on their head, before placing it on the altar.Шаблон:Sfn The final stage of the process involves the initiate being given an Шаблон:Lang rattle.Шаблон:Sfn The initiation process is seen to have ended when the new initiate is first possessed by a Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn Initiation is seen as creating a bond between a devotee and their tutelary Шаблон:Lang,Шаблон:Sfn and the former will often take on a new name that alludes to the name of this Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn
Shrines and altars
The creation of sacred works is important in Vodou.Шаблон:Sfn Votive objects used in Haiti are typically made from industrial materials, including iron, plastic, sequins, china, tinsel, and plaster.Шаблон:Sfn An altar, or Шаблон:Lang, will often contain images (typically lithographs) of Roman Catholic saints.Шаблон:Sfnm Since developing in the mid-19th century, chromolithography has also had an impact on Vodou imagery, facilitating the widespread availability of images of the Roman Catholic saints who are equated with the Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn Various Vodouists have made use of varied available materials in constructing their shrines. Cosentino encountered a shrine in Port-au-Prince where Baron Samedi was represented by a plastic statue of Santa Claus wearing a black sombrero,Шаблон:Sfn and in another by a statue of Star Wars-character Darth Vader.Шаблон:Sfn In Port-au-Prince, it is common for Vodouists to include human skulls on their altar for the Gede.Шаблон:Sfn Many practitioners will also have an altar devoted to their ancestors in their home, to which they direct offerings.Шаблон:Sfn In Шаблон:Lang where both Rada and Petwo deities are worshipped, their altars are kept separate.Шаблон:Sfn
Various spaces other than the temple are used for Vodou ritual.Шаблон:Sfn Cemeteries are seen as places where spirits reside, making them suitable for certain rituals,Шаблон:Sfn especially to approach the spirits of the dead.Шаблон:Sfn In rural Haiti, cemeteries are often family owned and play a key role in family rituals.Шаблон:Sfn Crossroads are also ritual locations, selected as they are believed to be points of access to the spirit world.Шаблон:Sfn Other spaces used for Vodou rituals include Christian churches, rivers, the sea, fields, and markets.Шаблон:Sfn
Certain trees are regarded as having spirits resident in them and are used as natural altars.Шаблон:Sfn Different species of tree are associated with different Шаблон:Lang; Oyu, for example, is linked with mango trees, and Danbala with bougainvillea.Шаблон:Sfn Selected trees in Haiti have had metal items affixed to them, serving as shrines to Ogou, who is associated with both iron and the roads.Шаблон:Sfn Spaces for ritual also appear in the homes of many Vodouists.Шаблон:Sfn These may vary from complex altars to more simple variants including only images of saints alongside candles and a rosary.Шаблон:Sfn
Drawings known as Шаблон:Lang are sketched onto the floor of the Шаблон:Lang using cornmeal, ash, coffee grounds, or powdered eggshells;Шаблон:Sfnm these are central to Vodou ritual.Шаблон:Sfn Usually arranged symmetrically around the Шаблон:Lang,Шаблон:Sfn these designs sometimes incorporate letters;Шаблон:Sfn their purpose is to summon Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn Inside the Шаблон:Lang, practitioners also unfurl ceremonial flags known as Шаблон:Lang (flags) at the start of a ceremony.Шаблон:Sfnm Often made of silk or velvet and decorated with shiny objects such as sequins,Шаблон:Sfnm the Шаблон:Lang often feature either the Шаблон:Lang of specific Шаблон:Lang they are dedicated to or depictions of the associated Roman Catholic saint.Шаблон:Sfn These Шаблон:Lang are understood as points of entry through which the Шаблон:Lang can enter the Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn
A Шаблон:Lang (baptism) is a ritual used to make an object a vessel for the Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn Objects consecrated for ritual use are believed to contain a spiritual essence or power called Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn The Шаблон:Lang is a sacred rattle used in summoning the Шаблон:Lang,Шаблон:Sfnm especially for Rada rites.Шаблон:Sfn It consists of an empty, dried gourd covered in beads and snake vertebra.Шаблон:Sfnm Prior to being used in ritual it requires consecration.Шаблон:Sfn It is a symbol of the priesthood;Шаблон:Sfn assuming the duties of a Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang is referred to as "taking the Шаблон:Lang."Шаблон:Sfnm For Petwo rites a different rattle, the Шаблон:Lang, is favored.Шаблон:Sfn Another type of sacred object are the "thunder stones", often prehistoric axe-heads, which are associated with specific Шаблон:Lang and kept in oil to preserve their power.Шаблон:Sfn
Offerings and animal sacrifice
Feeding the Шаблон:Lang is of great importance,Шаблон:Sfn with offering rites often termed Шаблон:Lang ("feeding the Шаблон:Lang").Шаблон:Sfnm Offering food and drink to the Шаблон:Lang is Vodou's most common ritual, conducted both communally and in the home.Шаблон:Sfn The choice of food and drink offered varies depending on the Шаблон:Lang in question, with different Шаблон:Lang believed to favor different foodstuffs.Шаблон:Sfnm Danbala for instance requires white foods, especially eggs,Шаблон:Sfnm while Legba's offerings, whether meat, tubers, or vegetables, need to be grilled on a fire,Шаблон:Sfn and the Шаблон:Lang of the Ogu and Nago nations prefer raw rum or clairin.Шаблон:Sfn Certain foods are also offered in the belief that they are intrinsically virtuous, such as grilled maize, peanuts, and cassava.Шаблон:Sfn
A Шаблон:Lang (dry meal) is an offering of grains, fruit, and vegetables that often precedes a simple ceremony; it takes its name from the absence of blood.Шаблон:Sfnm Animal sacrifices are often favored at annual feasts that an Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang organizes for their congregation.Шаблон:Sfn Species used for sacrifice include chickens, goats, and bulls, with pigs often favored for Petwo Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn The animal may be washed, dressed in the color of the specific Шаблон:Lang, and marked with food or water.Шаблон:Sfn Often, the animal's throat will be cut and the blood collected in a calabash.Шаблон:Sfn Chickens are often killed by the pulling off of their heads; their limbs may be broken beforehand.Шаблон:Sfn In the case of Agwé, a Шаблон:Lang of the sea, a white sheep may be sailed out to Trois Ilets and thrown overboard as a sacrifice.Шаблон:Sfnm
Once killed, the animal may be butchered and organs removed, sometimes cooked, and placed on the altar or Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn Here, it sometimes sites within a Шаблон:Lang, a calabash shell bowl.Шаблон:Sfn Vodouists believe that the Шаблон:Lang consume the essence of the food.Шаблон:Sfn Food is typically offered when it is cool, and is left for a while before humans may eat it.Шаблон:Sfn Offerings not consumed by the celebrants are often buried or left at a crossroads.Шаблон:Sfnm Libations might be poured into the ground.Шаблон:Sfn
The Шаблон:Lang
Vodou's nocturnal gatherings are often referred to as the Шаблон:Lang ("dance"), reflecting the prominent role that dancing has in such ceremonies.Шаблон:Sfn Their purpose is to invite a Шаблон:Lang to enter the ritual space and possess one of the worshippers, through whom they can communicate with the congregation.Шаблон:Sfn The success of this procedure is predicated on mastering the different ritual actions and on getting the aesthetic right to please the Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn The proceedings can last for the entirety of the night.Шаблон:Sfn
On arriving, the congregation typically disperse along the perimeter of the Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn The ritual often begins with Roman Catholic prayers and hymns;Шаблон:Sfnm these are often led by a figure known as the Шаблон:Lang, although not all Шаблон:Lang have anyone in this role.Шаблон:Sfn This is followed by the shaking of the Шаблон:Lang rattle to summon the Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn Two Haitian Creole songs, the Priyè Deyò ("Outside Prayers"), may then be sung, lasting from 45 minutes to an hour.Шаблон:Sfn The main Шаблон:Lang are then saluted, individually, in a specific order.Шаблон:Sfn Legba always comes first, as he is believed to open the way for the others.Шаблон:Sfn Each Шаблон:Lang may be offered either three or seven songs, which are specific to them.Шаблон:Sfn
The rites employed to call down the Шаблон:Lang vary depending on the Шаблон:Lang in question.Шаблон:Sfn During large-scale ceremonies, the Шаблон:Lang are invited to appear through the drawing of Шаблон:Lang on the ground using cornmeal.Шаблон:Sfn Also used to call down the spirits is a process of drumming, singing, prayers, and dances.Шаблон:Sfn Libations and offerings of food are made to the Шаблон:Lang, which includes animal sacrifices.Шаблон:Sfn The order and protocol for welcoming the Шаблон:Lang is referred to as Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfnm
A symbol of the religion,Шаблон:Sfn the drum is perhaps the most sacred item in Vodou.Шаблон:Sfn Vodouists believe that ritual drums contain an etheric force, the Шаблон:Lang,Шаблон:Sfnm and a spirit called Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn Specific ceremonies accompany the construction of a drum so that it is considered suitable for ritual use.Шаблон:Sfnm In the Шаблон:Lang ("feeding of the drum") ritual, offerings are given to the drum itself.Шаблон:Sfnm Reflecting its status, when Vodouists enter the Шаблон:Lang they customarily bow before the drums.Шаблон:Sfn Different types of drum are used, sometimes reserved for rituals devoted to specific Шаблон:Lang; Petwo rites for instance involve two types of drum, whereas Rada rituals require three.Шаблон:Sfn Ritual drummers are called Шаблон:Lang,Шаблон:Sfn and becoming one requires a lengthy apprenticeship.Шаблон:Sfn The drumming style, choice of rhythm, and composition of the orchestra differs depending on which nation of Шаблон:Lang are being invoked.Шаблон:Sfnm The drum rhythms typically generate a Шаблон:Lang ("break"), which the master drummer will initiate to oppose the main rhythm being played by the rest of the drummers. This is seen as having a destabilizing effect on the dancers and helping to facilitate their possession.Шаблон:Sfn
Drumming is typically accompanied by singing,Шаблон:Sfn usually in Haitian Creole,Шаблон:Sfnm although sometimes in Fon or Yoruba.Шаблон:Sfn These songs are often structured around a call and response, with a soloist singing a line and the chorus responding with either the same line or an abbreviated version.Шаблон:Sfn The soloist is the Шаблон:Lang, who maintains the rhythm with a rattle.Шаблон:Sfnm Lyrically simple and repetitive, these songs are invocations to summon a Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn Dancing also plays a major role in ritual,Шаблон:Sfn utilising the rhythm of the drummers.Шаблон:Sfn The dances are simple, lacking complex choreography, and usually involve the dancers moving counterclockwise around the Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfnm Specific dance movements can indicate the Шаблон:Lang or their Шаблон:Lang being summoned;Шаблон:Sfnm dances for Agwe for instance imitate swimming motions.Шаблон:Sfn Vodouists believe that the Шаблон:Lang renew themselves through the vitality of the dancers.Шаблон:Sfn
Spirit possession
Spirit possession is important,Шаблон:Sfnm being central to many Vodou rituals.Шаблон:Sfn The person being possessed is called the Шаблон:Lang (horse);Шаблон:Sfnm the act of possession is termed "mounting a horse".Шаблон:Sfnm Vodou teaches that both male and female Шаблон:Lang can possess either men or women.Шаблон:Sfnm Although children are often present at these ceremonies,Шаблон:Sfn they are rarely possessed as it is considered too dangerous.Шаблон:Sfn Some individuals attending the dance will put a certain item, often wax, in their hair or headgear to prevent possession.Шаблон:Sfn While the specific drums and songs used are designed to encourage a specific Шаблон:Lang to possess someone, sometimes an unexpected Шаблон:Lang appears and takes possession instead.Шаблон:Sfn
The possession trance is termed the Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn Vodouists believe that the Шаблон:Lang enters the head of the Шаблон:Lang and displaces their Шаблон:Lang,Шаблон:Sfnm making the Шаблон:Lang tremble and convulse.Шаблон:Sfnm As their consciousness has been removed from their head during the possession, Vodouists believe that the Шаблон:Lang will have no memory of the incident.Шаблон:Sfnm The length of the possession varies, often lasting a few hours but sometimes several days.Шаблон:Sfn Sometimes a succession of Шаблон:Lang possess the same individual, one after the other.Шаблон:Sfnm Possession may end with the Шаблон:Lang collapsing in a semi-conscious state,Шаблон:Sfn being left physically exhausted.Шаблон:Sfn
Once the Шаблон:Lang possesses an individual, the congregation greet it with a burst of song and dance.Шаблон:Sfn The Шаблон:Lang will typically bow before the officiating priest or priestess and prostrate before the Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfnm The Шаблон:Lang is often escorted into an adjacent room where they are dressed in clothing associated with the possessing Шаблон:Lang. Alternatively, the clothes are brought out and they are dressed in the Шаблон:Lang itself.Шаблон:Sfnm These costumes and props help the Шаблон:Lang take on the appearance of the Шаблон:Lang;Шаблон:Sfn many Шаблон:Lang have a large wooden phallus used by those possessed by Gede Шаблон:Lang, for instance.Шаблон:Sfnm Once the Шаблон:Lang has been dressed, congregants kiss the floor before them.Шаблон:Sfnm
The Шаблон:Lang adopts the behavior of the possessing Шаблон:Lang;Шаблон:Sfnm their performance can be very theatrical.Шаблон:Sfn Those believing themselves possessed by the serpent Danbala, for instance, often slither on the floor, dart out their tongue, and climb the posts of the Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfnm Those possessed by Zaka, Шаблон:Lang of agriculture, will dress as a peasant in a straw hat with a clay pipe and will often speak in a rustic accent.Шаблон:Sfnm The Шаблон:Lang will often join in with the dances,Шаблон:Sfn eat or drink.Шаблон:Sfn Sometimes the Шаблон:Lang, through the Шаблон:Lang, will engage in financial transactions with members of the congregation, for instance by selling them food that has been given as an offering or lending them money.Шаблон:Sfnm
Possession facilitates direct communication between Vodouists and the Шаблон:Lang;Шаблон:Sfn through the Шаблон:Lang, the Шаблон:Lang communicates with their devotees, offering counsel, chastisement, blessings, warnings about the future, and healing.Шаблон:Sfnm Шаблон:Lang possession has a healing function, with the possessed individual expected to reveal possible cures to the ailments of those assembled.Шаблон:Sfn Clothing that the Шаблон:Lang touches is regarded as bringing luck.Шаблон:Sfnm The Шаблон:Lang may also offer advice to the individual they are possessing; because the latter is not believed to retain any memory of the events, it is expected that other members of the congregation will pass along the Шаблон:Lang's message.Шаблон:Sfnm In some instances, practitioners have reported being possessed at other times of ordinary life, such as when someone is in the middle of the market,Шаблон:Sfn or when they are asleep.Шаблон:Sfn
Divination
A common form of divination employed by Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang is to invoke a Шаблон:Lang into a pitcher, where it will then be asked questions.Шаблон:Sfn Other forms of divination used by Vodouists include the casting of shells,Шаблон:Sfn cartomancy,Шаблон:Sfn studying leaves, coffee grounds or cinders in a glass, or looking into a candle flame.Шаблон:Sfn A form of divination associated especially with Petwo Шаблон:Lang is the use of a Шаблон:Lang shell, sometimes with a mirror attached to one side and affixed at both ends to string. The string is twirled and the directions of the shell used to interpret the responses of the Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn
Healing
Healing plays an important role in Vodou.Шаблон:Sfn A client will approach a Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang complaining of illness or misfortune and the latter will use divination to determine the cause and select a remedy.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang typically have a wide knowledge of plants and their medicinal uses.Шаблон:Sfn When collecting plants they are expected to show them respect, for instance by leaving coins in payment for removing leaves.Шаблон:Sfn
To heal, Vodou specialists often prescribe baths, consisting of water infused with various ingredients,Шаблон:Sfnm or produce powders for a specific purpose, such as to attract good luck or aid seduction.Шаблон:Sfn Alternatively, they may create a material object infused with spirits or medicines, a wanga,Шаблон:Sfn although these can also be devoted to harmful purposes.Шаблон:Sfnm Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang often provide talismans,Шаблон:Sfnm called a Шаблон:Lang (point),Шаблон:Sfnm Шаблон:Lang (work),Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Lang (magic work),Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfnm The latter term highlights the potential influence of the Bakongo minkisi on these Haitian ritual creations.Шаблон:Sfnm
In Haiti, Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang may advise their clients to seek assistance from medical professionals, while the latter may also send their patients to see an Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn Although in the late 20th century there were concerns that the Haitian reliance on Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang was contributing to the spread of HIV/AIDS,Шаблон:Sfn by the early 21st century, various NGOs and other groups were working on bringing Vodou officiants into the broader campaign against the virus.Шаблон:Sfn In Haiti, there are also Шаблон:Lang ("herb doctors"; "leaf doctors") who offer herbal remedies for ailments but deal in fewer problems than Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfnm
Harming practices
Vodou teaches that supernatural factors cause or exacerbate many problems.Шаблон:Sfn It holds that humans can cause supernatural harm to others, either unintentionally or deliberately,Шаблон:Sfn in the latter case exerting power over a person through possession of hair or nail clippings belonging to them.Шаблон:Sfn Vodouists also often believe that supernatural harm can be caused by other entities. The Шаблон:Lang (werewolf) is a human, usually female, who transforms into an animals and drains blood from sleeping victims,Шаблон:Sfnm while members of the Bizango secret society are feared for their reputed ability to transform into dogs, in which form they walk the streets at night.Шаблон:Sfnm
An individual who turns to the Шаблон:Lang to harm others is a Шаблон:Lang,Шаблон:Sfn or a Шаблон:Lang,Шаблон:Sfnm although this latter term can also refer to an Шаблон:Lang generally.Шаблон:Sfn They are described as someone who Шаблон:Lang ("serves with both hands"),Шаблон:Sfnm or is Шаблон:Lang ("working with both hands").Шаблон:Sfn As the good Шаблон:Lang have rejected them as unworthy, Шаблон:Lang are believed to work with Шаблон:Lang ("bought Шаблон:Lang"),Шаблон:Sfnm spirits that will work for anyone who pays them,Шаблон:Sfn and often members of the Petwo Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn According to Haitian popular belief, Шаблон:Lang engage in Шаблон:Lang ("expeditions"), setting the dead against an individual to cause the latter's sudden illness and death,Шаблон:Sfnm and utilise Шаблон:Lang, malevolent spirits sometimes in animal form.Шаблон:Sfnm In Haiti, there is much suspicion and censure toward those suspected of being Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn The curses of the Шаблон:Lang are believed to be countered by the Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang, who can revert the curse through an exorcism that incorporates invocations of protective Шаблон:Lang, massages, and baths.Шаблон:Sfnm In Haiti, some Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang have been accused of working with a Шаблон:Lang, arranging for the latter to curse individuals so that they can financially profit from removing these curses.Шаблон:Sfn
Funerals, the dead, and Шаблон:Lang
Vodou features complex funerary customs.Шаблон:Sfn Following an individual's death, the Шаблон:Lang ritual frees the Шаблон:Lang from their body and disconnects them from their tutelary Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfnm The corpse is then bathed in a herbal infusion by an individual termed the Шаблон:Lang, who gives the dead person messages to take with them.Шаблон:Sfnm A wake, the Шаблон:Lang, follows.Шаблон:Sfnm The body is then buried in the cemetery,Шаблон:Sfn often according to Roman Catholic custom.Шаблон:Sfn
In northern Haiti, an additional rite takes place at the Шаблон:Lang on the day of the funeral, the Шаблон:Lang (breaking of the clay pot). In this, a jar is washed in substances including kleren, placed within a trench dug into the Шаблон:Lang floor, and smashed. The trench is then refilled.Шаблон:Sfnm The night after the funeral, the Шаблон:Lang takes place at the home of the deceased, involving Roman Catholic prayers;Шаблон:Sfnm a mass for them is held a year after death.Шаблон:Sfn Vodouists fear the dead's ability to harm the living;Шаблон:Sfn it is believed that the deceased may for instance punish their living relatives if the latter fail to appropriately mourn them.Шаблон:Sfn
Many Vodouists believe that a practitioner's spirit dwells in the land of Ginen, located at the bottom of a lake or river, for a year and a day.Шаблон:Sfnm A year and a day after death, the Шаблон:Lang ("extracting the dead from the waters of the abyss") ritual may take place, in which the deceased's Шаблон:Lang is reclaimed from the realm of the dead and placed into a clay jar or bottle called the Шаблон:Lang. Now ensconced in the world of the living, the Шаблон:Lang of this ancestor is deemed capable of assisting its descendants and guiding them with its wisdom.Шаблон:Sfnm Practitioners sometimes believe that failing to conduct this ritual can result in misfortune, illness, and death for the family of the deceased.Шаблон:Sfn Offerings then given to this spirit of the dead are termed Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn The notion of a spirit being encased in a vessel and then used for workings likely derives from Bakongo influences,Шаблон:Sfn and has similarities with the Bakongo-derived Palo religion from Cuba.Шаблон:Sfn
Another belief about the dead, that of Шаблон:Lang, is one of the most sensationalized aspects of Haitian religion.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Lang are often regarded as the Шаблон:Lang of the recently deceased that have been captured and forced to work for their master.Шаблон:Sfn The Шаблон:Lang may then be kept inside a bottle or other vessel.Шаблон:Sfn The practice is often linked to Шаблон:Lang (secret societies), which are suspected of murdering the individual they wish to turn into a Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn To achieve this, they may obtain the bones of a deceased person, especially their skull, sometimes by bribing cemetery workers;Шаблон:Sfnm the skull will often be baptised, given food, and set a particular task to specialise in, such as healing a specific malady.Шаблон:Sfn Those intending to take a Шаблон:Lang as a Шаблон:Lang may have to borrow or buy them from Baron Samedi.Шаблон:Sfn
An alternative idea in Haitian lore is that it is the body that is turned into a Шаблон:Lang,Шаблон:Sfnm in which case a Шаблон:Lang has seized an individual's Шаблон:Lang and left the body as an empty vessel that can be manipulated.Шаблон:Sfn The reality of this phenomenon is contested,Шаблон:Sfn although the anthropologist Wade Davis argued that this was based on a real practice whereby Bizango societies used poisons to make certain individuals more pliant.Шаблон:Sfn Haitians generally do not fear Шаблон:Lang, but rather fear becoming one themselves.Шаблон:Sfn The figure of the Шаблон:Lang has also been interpreted as a metaphor for the enslavement central to Haitian history.Шаблон:Sfnm
Festival and pilgrimage
On the saints' days of the Roman Catholic calendar, Vodouists often hold "birthday parties" for the Шаблон:Lang associated with the saint whose day it is.Шаблон:Sfn These are marked with special altars for the celebrated Шаблон:Lang,Шаблон:Sfn as well as the preparation of their preferred food.Шаблон:Sfn Devotions to the Gede are particularly common around the days of the dead, All Saints (1 November) and All Souls (2 November),Шаблон:Sfnm with celebrations largely taking place in the cemeteries of Port-au-Prince.Шаблон:Sfn At this festival, those devoted to the Gede dress in black and purple, with funeral frock coats, black veils, and top hats, all linking to the Gede's associations with death.Шаблон:Sfnm
The build-up to Easter sees Rara bands, largely consisting of peasants and the urban poor, process through the streets singing and dancing.Шаблон:Sfn Each Rara band is considered to be under the patronage of a particular Шаблон:Lang, holding a contract with them that typically lasts seven years.Шаблон:Sfn Performing Rara is regarded as a service to the Шаблон:Lang,Шаблон:Sfn and some Rara leaders claim that a Шаблон:Lang instructed them to form their band.Шаблон:Sfn An Шаблон:Lang will typically be part of the Rara band and will oversee their religious obligations, for instance performing rituals during their procession,Шаблон:Sfn or providing members with a Шаблон:Lang protective bath before they perform.Шаблон:Sfn They may also attempt to curse or poison rival Rara bands.Шаблон:Sfn
Pilgrimage is part of Haitian religious culture.Шаблон:Sfn In late July, Vodouist pilgrims visit Plaine du Nord near Bwa Caiman, where according to legend the Haitian Revolution began. There, sacrifices are made and pilgrims immerse themselves in the Шаблон:Lang (mud pits).Шаблон:Sfnm The pilgrims often mass before the Church of Saint Jacques, with Saint Jacques perceived as being the Шаблон:Lang Ogou.Шаблон:Sfnm Another pilgrimage site is Saint d'Eau, a mountain associated with the Шаблон:Lang Èzili Dantò.Шаблон:Sfn Pilgrims visit a site outside the town of Ville-Bonheur where Èzili is claimed to have once appeared; there, they bathe under waterfalls.Шаблон:Sfn Haitian pilgrims commonly wear coloured ropes around their head or waist;Шаблон:Sfn a tradition that may derive from a Bakongo custom, kanga ("to tie"), during which sacred objects were bound with rope.Шаблон:Sfn
History
Before the Revolution
In 1492, Christopher Columbus' expedition established a Spanish colony on Hispaniola.Шаблон:Sfn A growing European presence decimated the island's indigenous population, which was probably Taíno, both through introduced diseases and exploitation as laborers.Шаблон:Sfn The European colonists then turned to imported West African slaves as a new source of labor; Africans first arrived on Hispaniola circa 1512.Шаблон:Sfn Most of the enslaved were prisoners of war.Шаблон:Sfn Some were probably priests of traditional religions, helping to transport their rites to the Americas.Шаблон:Sfn Others were probably Muslim, although Islam exerted little influence on Vodou,Шаблон:Sfn while some probably practiced traditional religions that had already absorbed Roman Catholic iconographic influences.Шаблон:Sfn
By the late 16th century, French colonists were settling in western Hispaniola; Spain recognized French sovereignty over that part of the island, which became Saint-Domingue, in a series of treaties signed in 1697.Шаблон:Sfnm Moving away from its previous subsistence economy, in the 18th century Saint-Domingue refocused its economy around the mass export of indigo, coffee, sugar, and cocoa to Europe.Шаблон:Sfnm To work the plantations, the French colonists placed a renewed emphasis on importing enslaved Africans; whereas there were twice as many Africans as Europeans in the colony in 1681, by 1790 there were eleven times as many Africans as Europeans.Шаблон:Sfnm Ultimately, Saint-Domingue became the colony with the largest number of slaves in the Caribbean.Шаблон:Sfn
The Code Noir issued by King Louis XIV in 1685 forbade the open practice of African religions on Saint-Domingue.Шаблон:Sfnm This Code compelled slave-owners to have their slaves baptised and instructed as Roman Catholics;Шаблон:Sfnm the fact that the process of enslavement led to these Africans becoming Christian was a key way in which the slave-owners sought to morally legitimate their actions.Шаблон:Sfn However, many slave-owners took little interest in having their slaves instructed in Roman Catholic teaching;Шаблон:Sfn they often did not want their slaves to spend time celebrating saints' days rather than laboring and were also concerned that black congregations could provide scope to foment revolt.Шаблон:Sfnm
Enslavement destroyed the social fabric of African traditional religions, which were typically rooted in ethnic and family membership.Шаблон:Sfn Although certain cultural assumptions about the nature of the universe would have been widely shared among the enslaved Africans, they came from diverse linguistic and ethno-cultural backgrounds and had to forge common cultural practices on Hispaniola.Шаблон:Sfn Gradually over the course of the 18th century, Vodou emerged as "a composite of various African ethnic traditions", merging diverse practices into a more cohesive form.Шаблон:Sfn
African religions had to be practiced secretly, with Roman Catholic iconography and rituals probably used to conceal the true identity of the deities venerated.Шаблон:Sfn This resulted in a system of correspondences between African spirits and Roman Catholic saints.Шаблон:Sfn Afro-Haitians adopted other aspects of French colonial culture;Шаблон:Sfn Vodou drew influence from European grimoires,Шаблон:Sfnm commedia performances,Шаблон:Sfn and Freemasonry, with Masonic lodges having been established across Saint-Domingue in the 18th century.Шаблон:Sfnm Vodou rituals took place in secret, usually at night; one such rite was described during the 1790s by a white man, Médéric Louis Élie Moreau de Saint-Méry.Шаблон:Sfnm Some enslaved Afro-Haitians escaped to form Maroon groups, which often practiced Vodou.Шаблон:Sfnm
The Haitian Revolution and the 19th century
In Haitian lore, Vodou is often presented as having played a vital role in the Haitian Revolution,Шаблон:Sfn although scholars debate the extent to which this is true.Шаблон:Sfn According to legend, a Vodou ritual took place in Bois-Caïman on 14 August 1791 at which the participants swore to overthrow the slave owners before massacring local whites and sparking the Revolution.Шаблон:Sfnm Although a popular tale in Haitian folklore, it has no historical evidence to support it.Шаблон:Sfnm Moreover, two of the revolution's early leaders, Boukman and Francois Mackandal, were reputed to be powerful Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn Amid growing rebellion, the French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte ordered troops into the colony in 1801,Шаблон:Sfn but in 1803 the French conceded defeat and the rebel leader Jean-Jacques Dessalines proclaimed Saint-Domingue to be a new republic named Haiti.Шаблон:Sfn
The Revolution broke up the large land-ownings and created a society of small subsistence farmers.Шаблон:Sfnm Haitians largely began living in Шаблон:Lang, or extended family compounds, which enabled the preservation of African-derived Creole religions.Шаблон:Sfnm These Шаблон:Lang often had their own Шаблон:Lang (root Шаблон:Lang),Шаблон:Sfn being intertwined with concepts of land and kinship.Шаблон:Sfn Many Roman Catholic missionaries had been killed in the Revolution,Шаблон:Sfn and after its victory Dessalines declared himself head of the Church in Haiti.Шаблон:Sfn Protesting these actions, the Roman Catholic Church cut ties with Haiti in 1805;Шаблон:Sfnm this allowed Vodou to predominate in the country.Шаблон:Sfnm Many churches left abandoned were adopted for Vodou rites, continuing the syncretization between the two systems.Шаблон:Sfnm At this point, with no new arrivals from Africa, Vodou began to stabilise,Шаблон:Sfn transforming from "a widely-scattered series of local cults" into "a religion".Шаблон:Sfn The Roman Catholic Church re-established its formal presence in Haiti in 1860.Шаблон:Sfnm
Haiti's first three presidents sought to suppress Vodou, using police to break-up rituals which they feared as a source of rebellion.Шаблон:Sfn In 1847, Faustin Soulouque became president; he was sympathetic to Vodou and allowed it to be practiced more openly.Шаблон:Sfn In the Bizoton Affair of 1863, several Vodou practitioners were accused of ritually killing a child before eating it. Historical sources suggest that they may have been tortured prior to confessing to the crime, at which they were executed.Шаблон:Sfn The affair received much attention.Шаблон:Sfn
20th century to the present
The United States occupied Haiti between 1915 and 1934,Шаблон:Sfnm although faced armed resistance from Haitian peasants, many of them Vodouists.Шаблон:Sfnm American occupation encouraged international interest in Vodou,Шаблон:Sfn something catered for in the sensationalist writings of Faustin Wirkus, William Seabrook, and John Craige,Шаблон:Sfn as well as in Vodou-themed shows for tourists.Шаблон:Sfn The period also saw the growing influence of the Roman Catholic Church,Шаблон:Sfn and in 1941 the Church backed Operation Nettoyage (Operation Cleanup), a government campaign to expunge Vodou, during which many Шаблон:Lang were destroyed.Шаблон:Sfnm Violent responses from Vodouists led President Élie Lescot to abandon the Operation.Шаблон:Sfn
During the occupation, the Шаблон:Lang (indigenist) movement developed among Haiti's middle classes, later transmogrifying into the international Négritude movement. These encouraged a more positive assessment of Vodou and peasant culture, a trend supported by the appearance of professional ethnological research on the topic from the 1930s onward.Шаблон:Sfnm Church influence in Haiti was curtailed by François Duvalier, the country's president from 1957 to 1971.Шаблон:Sfn Although he restored Catholicism as the state religion, Duvalier was widely perceived as a champion of Vodou,Шаблон:Sfn calling it "the supreme factor of Haitian unity".Шаблон:Sfn He utilized it for his own purposes, encouraging rumors about his own supernatural powers,Шаблон:Sfnm and selecting Шаблон:Lang as his Шаблон:Lang (rural section chiefs).Шаблон:Sfn
After his son, Jean-Claude Duvalier, was ousted from office in 1986, there were attacks on Vodouists perceived to have supported the Duvaliers, partly motivated by Protestant anti-Vodou campaigns; practitioners called this violence the Dechoukaj ('uprooting').Шаблон:Sfnm Two groups, the Zantray and Bode Nasyonal, were formed to defend the rights of Vodouists and hold rallies.Шаблон:Sfnm Haiti's 1987 constitution enshrined freedom of religion,Шаблон:Sfnm after which President Jean-Bertrand Aristide granted Vodou official recognition in 2003,Шаблон:Sfnm thus allowing Vodouists to officiate at civil ceremonies such as weddings and funerals.Шаблон:Sfn
Since the 1990s, evangelical Protestantism has grown in Haiti, generating tensions with Vodouists.Шаблон:Sfn These Protestants regard Vodou as Satanic,Шаблон:Sfn and unlike the Roman Catholic authorities have generally refused to compromise with its practitioners.Шаблон:Sfn The 2010 Haiti earthquake fuelled conversion from Vodou to Protestantism,Шаблон:Sfn with many Protestants claiming that the earthquake was punishment for the sins of the Haitian population, including their practice of Vodou.Шаблон:Sfnm Mob attacks on Vodouists followed in the wake of the earthquake,Шаблон:Sfn and again following the 2010 cholera outbreak.Шаблон:Sfnm
The first three decades of the 20th century saw growing Haitian migration to eastern Cuba, introducing Vodou to the island.Шаблон:Sfn From 1957, many Haitians emigrated to escape Duvalier, taking Vodou with them.Шаблон:Sfn In the U.S., Vodou has attracted non-Haitians, especially African Americans and Caribbean migrants,Шаблон:Sfn and has syncretized with other religions like Santería and Spiritism.Шаблон:Sfn During the latter half of the 20th century, those seeking to revive Louisiana Voodoo initiated practices that brought the religion closer to Haitian Vodou or Santería than it had been early in that century.Шаблон:Sfn
Demographics
Vodou is the majority religion of Haiti,Шаблон:Sfn for most Haitians practice both Vodou and Roman Catholicism.Шаблон:Sfn An often used joke about Haiti holds that the island's population is 85% Roman Catholic, 15% Protestant, and 100% Vodou.Шаблон:Sfnm Even some of those who reject Vodou acknowledge its close associations with Haitian identity.Шаблон:Sfn
It is difficult to determine how many Haitians practice Vodou, largely because the country has never had an accurate census and many Vodouists will not openly admit they practice the religion.Шаблон:Sfn Among the country's middle and upper-classes, for instance, many individuals publicly decry Vodou yet privately practice it.Шаблон:Sfn Estimates have nevertheless been made; one suggested that 80% of Haitians practice Vodou,Шаблон:Sfn while in 1992, Desmangles put the number of Haitian practitioners at six million.Шаблон:Sfn Not all take part in the religion regularly, but many will turn to Vodou priests and priestesses when in times of need.Шаблон:Sfn
Vodouists learn about the religion by taking part in its rituals,Шаблон:Sfn with children learning by observing adults.Шаблон:Sfn Vodou does not focus on proselytizing;Шаблон:Sfnm according to Brown, it has "no pretensions to the universal."Шаблон:Sfn It has nevertheless spread beyond Haiti, including to other Caribbean islands like the Dominican Republic, Cuba, and Puerto Rico, as well as to France and the United States.Шаблон:Sfn Major Шаблон:Lang exist in U.S. cities such as Miami, New York City, Washington, DC, Boston, and Oakland, California.Шаблон:Sfnm
Reception and legacy
Various scholars describe Vodou as one of the world's most maligned and misunderstood religions.Шаблон:Sfnm Throughout Haitian history, Christians have often presented Vodou as Satanic,Шаблон:Sfn while in broader Anglophone and Francophone society it has been widely associated with sorcery, witchcraft, and black magic.Шаблон:Sfnm In U.S. popular culture, for instance, Haitian Vodou is usually portrayed as destructive and malevolent,Шаблон:Sfn attitudes often linked with anti-black racism.Шаблон:Sfn Non-practitioners have often depicted Vodou in literature, theater, and film;Шаблон:Sfn in many cases, such as the films White Zombie (1932) and London Voodoo (2004), these promote sensationalist views of the religion.Шаблон:Sfn The lack of any central Vodou authority has hindered efforts to combat these negative representations.Шаблон:Sfn
Humanity's relationship with the Шаблон:Lang has been a recurring theme in Haitian art,Шаблон:Sfn and the Vodou pantheon was a major topic for the mid-20th century artists of the "Haitian Renaissance."Шаблон:Sfn In the late 1950s, art collectors began to take an interest in Vodou ritual paraphernalia and by the 1970s an established market for this material had emerged.Шаблон:Sfn Exhibits of Vodou ritual material have been displayed abroad; the Fowler Museum's exhibit on "Sacred Arts of Haitian Vodou" for instance traveled the U.S. for three years in the 1990s.Шаблон:Sfnm Vodou has appeared in Haitian literature,Шаблон:Sfn and has also influenced Haitian music, as with the rasin band Boukman Eksperyans,Шаблон:Sfnm while theatre troupes have performed simulated Vodou rituals for audiences outside Haiti.Шаблон:Sfn Documentaries focusing on Vodou have appearedШаблон:Sfn—such as Maya Deren's 1985 film Divine HorsemenШаблон:Sfn[1] or Anne Lescot and Laurence Magloire's 2002 work Of Men and GodsШаблон:Sfnm—which have in turn encouraged some viewers to take a practical interest in the religion.Шаблон:Sfn
See also
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
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- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite news
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite journal
Further reading
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- McAlister, Elizabeth. 1998. "The Madonna of 115th St. Revisited: Vodou and Haitian Catholicism in the Age of Transnationalism. Шаблон:Webarchive" In S. Warner, ed., Gatherings in Diaspora. Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press.
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
External links
- Шаблон:Cite encyclopedia
- Living Vodou. Speaking of Faith from American Public Media. Audio and transcript. February 4, 2010
Шаблон:Afro-American Religions Шаблон:Haiti topics Шаблон:Religion topics Шаблон:Authority control
- Английская Википедия
- Страницы с неработающими файловыми ссылками
- Haitian Vodou
- Afro-Caribbean religion
- Afro-Haitian culture
- Afro-American religion
- Christianity and religious syncretism
- Religion in Haiti
- Страницы, где используется шаблон "Навигационная таблица/Телепорт"
- Страницы с телепортом
- Википедия
- Статья из Википедии
- Статья из Английской Википедии
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