Английская Википедия:Hakka Chinese
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:About Шаблон:Redirect Шаблон:Distinguish Шаблон:More citations needed Шаблон:Infobox language Шаблон:Infobox Chinese
Hakka (Шаблон:Zh; Pha̍k-fa-sṳ: Шаблон:Transl, Шаблон:Zh) forms a language group of varieties of Chinese, spoken natively by the Hakka people in parts of Southern China and some diaspora areas of Taiwan, Southeast Asia and in overseas Chinese communities around the world.
Due to its primary usage in scattered isolated regions where communication is limited to the local area, Hakka has developed numerous varieties or dialects, spoken in different provinces, such as Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Fujian, Sichuan, Hunan, Jiangxi, Guizhou, as well as in Taiwan, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand and Indonesia. Hakka is not mutually intelligible with Yue, Wu, Southern Min, Mandarin or other branches of Chinese, and itself contains a few mutually unintelligible varieties. It is most closely related to Gan and is sometimes classified as a variety of Gan, with a few northern Hakka varietiesШаблон:Which even being partially mutually intelligible with southern Gan. There is also a possibility that the similarities are just a result of shared areal features.[1]
Taiwan designates Hakka as one of its national languages, thus regarding the language as a subject for its study and preservation. Pronunciation differences exist between the Taiwanese Hakka dialects and mainland China's Hakka dialects; even in Taiwan, two major local varieties of Hakka exist.
The Meixian dialect (Moiyen) of northeast Guangdong in mainland China has been taken as the "standard" dialect by the government of mainland China. The Guangdong Provincial Education Department created an official romanization of Moiyen in 1960, one of four languages receiving this status in Guangdong.
Etymology
The name of the Hakka people who are the predominant original native speakers of the variety literally means "guest families" or "guest people": Hak (Mandarin: Шаблон:Transl) means "guest", and ka (Mandarin: Шаблон:Transl) means "family". Among themselves, Hakka people variously called their language Hak-ka-fa (-va), Hak-fa (-va), Tu-gong-dung-fa (-va), literally "Native Guangdong language", and Ngai-fa (-va), "My/our language". In Tonggu County, Jiangxi province, people call their language Huai-yuan-fa.
History
Early history
It is commonly believed that Hakka people have their origins in several episodes of migration from northern China into southern China during periods of war and civil unrest[2] dating back as far as the end of Western Jin.[3] The forebears of the Hakka came from present-day Central Plains provinces of Henan and Shaanxi, and brought with them features of Chinese varieties spoken in those areas during that time. (Since then, the speech in those regions has evolved into dialects of modern Mandarin). The presence of many archaic features occur in modern Hakka, including final consonants Шаблон:IPA, as are found in other modern southern Chinese varieties, but which have been lost in Mandarin.
Laurent Sagart (2002)Шаблон:Sfnp considers Hakka and southern Gan Chinese to be sister dialects that descended from a single common ancestral language (Proto-Southern Gan) spoken in central Jiangxi during the Song Dynasty. In Hakka and southern Gan, Sagart (2002) identifies a non-Chinese substratum that is possibly Hmong-Mien, an archaic layer, and a more recent Late Middle Chinese layer. Lexical connections between Hakka, Kra-Dai, and Hmong-Mien have also been suggested by Deng (1999).[4]
Due to the migration of its speakers, Hakka may have been influenced by other language areas through which the Hakka-speaking forebears migrated. For instance, common vocabulary is found in Hakka, Min, and the She (Hmong–Mien) languages.Шаблон:Citation needed Today, most She people in Fujian and Zhejiang speak She, which is closely related to Hakka.
Linguistic development
A regular pattern of sound change can generally be detected in Hakka, as in most Chinese varieties, of the derivation of phonemes from earlier forms of Chinese. Some examples:
- Characters such as 武 (war, martial arts) or 屋 (room, house), pronounced roughly mwio and uk (mjuX and ʔuwk in Baxter's transcription) in Early Middle Chinese, have an initial v phoneme in Hakka, being vu and vuk in Hakka respectively. Like in Mandarin, labiodentalisation in Hakka also changed mj- to a w-like sound before grave vowels, while Cantonese retained the original distinction (compare Mandarin 武 wǔ, 屋 wū, Cantonese 武 mou5, 屋 uk1).
- Middle Chinese initial phonemes /ɲ/ (ny in Baxter's transcription) of the characters 人 (person, people) and 日 (sun, day), among others, merged with ng- /ŋ/ initials in Hakka (人 ngin, 日 ngit). For comparison, in Mandarin, /ɲ/ became r- /ɻ/ (人 rén, 日 rì), while in Cantonese, it merged with initial y- /j/ (人 yan4, 日 yat6).
- The initial consonant phoneme exhibited by the character 話 (word, speech; Mandarin huà) is pronounced f or v in Hakka (v does not properly exist as a distinct unit in many Chinese varieties).
- The initial consonant of 學 Шаблон:IPA usually corresponds with an h [h] approximant in Hakka and a voiceless alveo-palatal fricative (x [ɕ]) in Mandarin.
Phonology
Dialects
(Ngài gong Hak。Hak-ngî yû-san fàn-kín)
(I speak Hakka. Hakka-language-friendly environment.)
Hakka has as many regional dialects as there are counties with Hakka speakers as the majority. SomeШаблон:Which of these Hakka dialects are not mutually intelligible with each other. Meixian is surrounded by the counties of Pingyuan, Dabu, Jiaoling, Xingning, Wuhua, and Fengshun. Each county has its own special phonological points of interest. For instance, Xingning lacks the codas Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA. These have merged into Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, respectively. Further away from Meixian, the Hong Kong dialect lacks the Шаблон:IPA medial, so whereas the Meixian dialect pronounces the character 光 as Шаблон:IPA, the Hong Kong Hakka dialect pronounces it as Шаблон:IPA, which is similar to the Hakka spoken in neighbouring Shenzhen.
Tones also vary across the dialects of Hakka. The majority of Hakka dialects have six tones. However, there are dialects which have lost all of their checked tones (rusheng), and the characters originally of this tone class are distributed across the non-ru tones. An example of such a dialect is Changting, which is situated in Western Fujian province. Moreover, there is evidence of the retention of an earlier Hakka tone system in the dialects of Haifeng and Lufeng, situated in coastal southeastern Guangdong province. They contain a yin-yang splitting in the qu tone, giving rise to seven tones in all (with yin-yang registers in ping and ru tones and a shang tone).
In Taiwan, there are two main dialects: Sixian and Hailu (alternatively known as Haifeng; Hailu refers to Haifeng County and Lufeng County). Most Hakka speakers in Taiwan can trace their ancestry to these two regions. Sixian speakers come from Jiaying Prefecture, mainly from the four counties of Chengxiang (now Meixian District), Zhengping (now Jiaoling), Xingning and Pingyuan. Most dialects of Taiwanese Hakka, except Sixian and Dabu, preserved postalveolar consonants (Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA), which are uncommon in other southern Chinese varieties.
- Huizhou dialect (not to be confused with Huizhou Chinese)
- Meixian dialect (otherwise known as Meizhou)
- Wuhua dialect
- Xingning dialect
- Pingyuan dialect
- Jiaoling dialect
- Dabu dialect
- Fengshun dialect
- Hailu dialect
- Sixian dialect
- Raoping dialect (a.k.a. Shangrao)[5]
- Zhaoan dialect
- Changting dialect
Ethnologue reports the dialects of Hakka as being Yue-Tai (Meixian, Wuhua, Raoping, Taiwan Kejia: Meizhou above), Yuezhong (Central Guangdong), Huizhou, Yuebei (Northern Guangdong), Tingzhou (Min-Ke), Ning-Long (Longnan), Yugui, and Tonggu.
Vocabulary
Like other southern Chinese varieties, Hakka retains many single syllable words from earlier stages of Chinese; thus, a large number of syllables are distinguished by tone and final consonant. This reduces the need for compound words. However, like other Chinese varieties, it does have words of more than one syllable.
| Character | Pronunciation | Gloss |
|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Linktext | Шаблон:IPA | 'person' |
| Шаблон:Linktext | Шаблон:IPA | 'bowl' |
| Шаблон:Linktext | Шаблон:IPA | 'dog' |
| Шаблон:Linktext | Шаблон:IPA | 'cow' |
| Шаблон:Linktext | Шаблон:IPA | 'house' |
| Шаблон:Linktext | Шаблон:IPA | 'mouth' |
| Шаблон:Linktext | Шаблон:IPA | 'I', 'me'Шаблон:Efn |
| Шаблон:Linktext[6] or Шаблон:Linktext[7] | Шаблон:IPA | 'he', 'she', 'it'Шаблон:Efn |
| Character | Pronunciation | Gloss |
|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Linktext | Шаблон:IPA | 'sun' |
| Шаблон:Linktext | Шаблон:IPA | 'moon' |
| Шаблон:Linktext | Шаблон:IPA | 'home' |
| Шаблон:Linktext | ||
| Шаблон:Linktext | Шаблон:IPA | 'telephone' |
| Шаблон:Linktext | Шаблон:IPA | 'school' |
| Шаблон:Linktext | Шаблон:IPA | 'chopsticks' |
Hakka, as well as numerous other Chinese varieties such as Min and Cantonese, prefers the verb Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Linktext when referring to 'saying', rather than the Mandarin Шаблон:Zhi (Hakka pronunciation: Шаблон:IPA).
Hakka uses Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Linktext, like Cantonese Шаблон:IPA for the verb 'to eat' and Шаблон:Linktext Шаблон:IPA (Hakka Шаблон:IPA) for 'to drink', unlike Mandarin which prefers Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Linktext (Hakka Шаблон:IPA) as 'to eat' and Шаблон:Zhi (Hakka Шаблон:IPA) as 'to drink' where the meanings in Hakka are different, 'to stutter' and 'to be thirsty' respectively.
| Character | Pronunciation | Gloss |
|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:IPA | Has your mother returned from going to the market yet, child? |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:IPA | His/her younger brother caught a butterfly to play with. |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:IPA | It's very cold, the water in the bucket has frozen over. |
Writing systems
Chinese script
Hakka Chinese is typically written using Chinese characters (Шаблон:Lang, 漢字 Hon-sṳ).
Latin script
Шаблон:Main Various dialects of Hakka such as Taiwanese Hakka, is sometimes written in the Latin script or Pha̍k-fa-sṳ.
Dialects of Hakka have been written in a number of Latin orthographies, largely for religious purposes, since at least the mid-19th century. The popular The Little Prince has also been translated into Hakka (2000), specifically the Miaoli dialect of Taiwan (itself a variant of the Sixian dialect). This also was dual-script, albeit using the Tongyong Pinyin scheme.Шаблон:Citation needed
Media
Hakka TV is a state-run, primarily Hakka-language television channel in Taiwan that started in 2003. In mainland China, Meizhou Televisions's Hakka Public Channel (Шаблон:Zh) has broadcasts 24 hours a day in Hakka since 2006.[8]Шаблон:Better citation needed
See also
- Varieties of Chinese
- Hakka culture
- Hakka Transliteration Scheme
- Pha̍k-fa-sṳ
- Hagfa Pinyim
- Protection of the Varieties of Chinese
- Taiwanese Hakka
Notes
References
Further reading
Шаблон:Interwiki Шаблон:Wikivoyage Шаблон:Refbegin
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite JIPA
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Taiwan Language Tool (including Hakka)
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