Английская Википедия:Hamgyŏng dialect
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Infobox language
The Hamgyŏng dialect, or Northeastern Korean, is a dialect of the Korean language used in most of North and South Hamgyŏng and Ryanggang Provinces of northeastern North Korea, all of which were originally united as Hamgyŏng Province. Since the nineteenth century, it has also been spoken by Korean diaspora communities in Northeast China and the former Soviet Union.
The characteristic features of Hamgyŏng include a pitch accent closely aligned to Middle Korean tone, extensive palatalization, widespread umlaut, preservation of pre-Middle Korean intervocalic consonants, distinctive verbal suffixes, and an unusual syntactic rule in which negative particles intervene between the auxiliary and the main verb.
History and distribution
The Hamgyŏng dialect is the Korean variety spoken in northeastern Hamgyŏng Province, now further divided as the North Korean provinces of North Hamgyŏng, South Hamgyŏng, and Ryanggang. However, not all of Hamgyŏng speaks the dialect. The Korean variety spoken south of a bend of the Tumen River, on Korea's border with China and Russia, is classified as a separate Yukjin dialect which is significantly more conservative than the mainstream Hamgyŏng dialect. The far southern counties of Kŭmya and Kowŏn, while within South Hamgyŏng's administrative jurisdiction, speak a dialect which is usually not classified as Hamgyŏng because it lacks a pitch accent.Шаблон:Sfn
The dialect is now spoken outside of Korea, in both China and Central Asia. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, in response to poor harvests and the Japanese annexation of Korea, many Koreans, including Hamgyŏng speakers, emigrated from the northern parts of the peninsula to eastern Manchuria (now Northeast China) and the southern part of Primorsky Krai in the Russian Far East. The descendants of these immigrants to Manchuria continue to speak, read, and write varieties of Korean while living in China, where they enjoy regional autonomy.Шаблон:Sfn In the 1930s, Stalin had the entire Korean population of the Russian Far East, some 250,000 people, forcibly deported to Soviet Central Asia, particularly Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan.Шаблон:Sfn There are small Korean communities scattered throughout central Asia maintaining forms of Korean known collectively as Koryo-mar, but their language is under severe pressure from local languages and Standard Seoul Korean and has been expected to go extinct within the early 21st century.Шаблон:Sfn
The most conservative forms of Hamgyŏng dialect are currently found in Central Asian communities, because the Korean language's lack of vitality there has put an end to natural language change. Among the communities where Hamgyŏng remains widely spoken, the Chinese diaspora dialect is more conservative than the modern North Korean dialect, as the latter has been under extensive pressure from the state-enforced North Korean standard language since the 1960s.Шаблон:Sfn
The first dictionary of Korean in a European language, Шаблон:Harvnb's attempt at a Russian–Korean dictionary, was based largely on the Hamgyŏng dialect; the author lived in Vladivostok while composing it.[1]
Phonology
Like the southeastern Gyeongsang dialect but unlike other Korean dialects, the Hamgyŏng dialect has a distinct high-low pitch accent system used to distinguish what would otherwise be homophones. Pitch-accent minimal pairs do not have tone in isolation, but only in the presence of a particle or copula. For instance, the word Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl—homophonous in the toneless standard Korean dialect of Seoul—may mean both "pear" and "belly" in Hamgyŏng as well, so long as the word exists in isolation. But when attached to the topic marker Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl, Шаблон:Interlinear is realized as Шаблон:Transl with a high pitch on the second syllable, while Шаблон:Interlinear is realized as Шаблон:Transl with high pitch on the first syllable.Шаблон:Sfn Unlike Gyeongsang pitches, Hamgyŏng pitches are regular reflexes of fifteenth-century Middle Korean tones. The Middle Korean high and rising tones have become the Hamgyŏng high pitch, and the Middle Korean low tone has become the Hamgyŏng low pitch. Vowel length is not phonemic.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn
The Hamgyŏng dialect has palatalized both Middle Korean Шаблон:Transl, Шаблон:Transl and Шаблон:Transl, Шаблон:Transl into Шаблон:Transl, Шаблон:Transl like the majority of Korean dialects, but unlike Seoul Korean, which has palatalized only the latter pair.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn
Middle Korean had voiced fricatives Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:IPA, which have disappeared in most modern dialects, but not in Gyeongsang and other southern provinces.Шаблон:Sfn Evidence from internal reconstruction suggests that these consonants arose from lenition of Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:IPA in voiced environments.Шаблон:Sfn Again like Gyeongsang, Hamgyŏng often retains Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:IPA in these words.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
In the Hamgyŏng dialect, the "t-irregular verbs", which are Middle Korean verb stems that end in Шаблон:IPA before a consonant-initial suffix and in Шаблон:IPA before a vowel-initial one, are regularly realized as Шаблон:IPA even before a vowel. However, unlike verb stems that always ended in Шаблон:IPA even in Middle Korean, the formerly t-irregular verbs cause reinforcement of the following consonant. This is again identical to the reflexes of t-irregularity in the Gyeongsang dialect.Шаблон:Sfn
The Hamgyŏng dialect traditionally had ten vowels, corresponding to the ten vowels of very conservative Seoul Korean speakers. However, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA have now diphthongized into Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, as in Seoul, and there is an ongoing merger of Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, now almost complete, and increasingly also of Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA. The end result is expected to be a much-reduced six-vowel inventory.Шаблон:Sfn The merger of Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA is a newly emergent areal feature in North Korean dialects since the mid-twentieth century, also shared by the modern Pyongan dialect.Шаблон:Sfn Many instances of /o/ in Standard Korean, especially in grammatical constructions, are /u~ɯ/ in Hamgyŏng. For instance, the Seoul conjunction Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:IPA "and" is realized as Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfn
There is a productive system of umlaut in the Hamgyŏng dialect. Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:IPA are fronted to Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:IPA, respectively, when followed by a sequence of a non-coronal consonant and a front and close vowel or glide, such as Шаблон:IPA. In some cases, this has become lexicalized; compare Hamgyŏng Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA "meat" to Seoul Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA "id." Umlaut is also common in Gyeongsang.Шаблон:Sfn
In native vocabulary, Middle Korean CjV sequences have monophthongized: Middle Korean Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:IPA > Hamgyŏng Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:IPA. In Sino-Korean vocabulary, CjV sequences have merged into umlauted monophthongs which have now become diphthongized again: compare Seoul Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:IPA "classroom" to Hamgyŏng Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn
Grammar
As with all Koreanic varieties, case markers are attached to nouns to show noun case.
Most analyses identify three speech levels of differing formality and deference to the addressee, which are marked by sentence-final verb-ending suffixes, as in other Korean dialects.Шаблон:Sfn Some of the more distinctive Hamgyŏng verb enders include Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl, a casual suffix which elicits confirmation or agreement; the formal suffix Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl and the neutral-level suffix Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl, both of which may be used—depending on the intonation—for declarative, interrogative, and imperative moods alike; and the neutral-level propositive suffix Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The informal-level suffixes are identical to Standard Korean ones.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn
Highly unusually, the Hamgyŏng negative particle (such as Шаблон:Transl 'not', Шаблон:Transl 'cannot') intervenes between the main verb and the auxiliary, unlike in other Koreanic varieties (except Yukjin, also spoken in Hamgyŏng) where the particle either precedes the main verb or follows the auxiliary.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn
| Шаблон:Fs interlinear | Шаблон:Fs interlinear |
Lexicon
Specific vocabulary differences include kinship terminology. For example, "father", in standard Korean abŏji (Шаблон:Lang), becomes abai (Шаблон:Lang) or aebi (Шаблон:Lang).[2]
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
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