Английская Википедия:Hard and soft C

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:More citations needed Шаблон:IPA notice In the Latin-based orthographies of many European languages, including English, a distinction between hard and soft Шаблон:Angle bracket occurs in which Шаблон:Angle bracket represents two distinct phonemes. The sound of a hard Шаблон:Angle bracket often precedes the non-front vowels Шаблон:Angle bracket, Шаблон:Angle bracket and Шаблон:Angle bracket, and is that of the voiceless velar stop, Шаблон:IPA (as in car). The sound of a soft Шаблон:Angle bracket, typically before Шаблон:Angle bracket, Шаблон:Angle bracket and Шаблон:Angle bracket, may be a fricative or affricate, depending on the language. In English (and not coincidentally also French), the sound of soft Шаблон:Angle bracket is Шаблон:IPA (as in both ⟨c⟩s in "circumference").

There was no soft Шаблон:Angle bracket in classical Latin, where it was always pronounced as Шаблон:IPA.[1]

History

This alternation is caused by a historical palatalization of Шаблон:IPA which took place in Late Latin, and led to a change in the pronunciation of the sound Шаблон:IPA before the front vowels Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA.[2][3] Later, other languages not directly descended from Latin, such as English, inherited this feature as an orthographic convention.

English

General overview

In English orthography, the pronunciation of hard Шаблон:Angle bracket is Шаблон:IPA and of soft Шаблон:Angle bracket is generally Шаблон:IPA. Yod-coalescence has altered instances of Шаблон:IPA ─ particularly in unstressed syllables ─ to Шаблон:IPA in most varieties of English, affecting words such as ocean, logician and magician. Generally, the soft Шаблон:Angle bracket pronunciation occurs before Шаблон:Angle bracket; it also occurs before Шаблон:Angle bracket and Шаблон:Angle bracket in a number of Greek and Latin loanwords (such as coelacanth, caecum, caesar). The hard Шаблон:Angle bracket pronunciation occurs everywhere else[4] except in the letter combinations Шаблон:Angle bracket, Шаблон:Angle bracket, and Шаблон:Angle bracket which have distinct pronunciation rules. Шаблон:Angle bracket generally represents Шаблон:IPA before Шаблон:Angle bracket, as in accident, succeed, and coccyx.

There are exceptions to the general rules of hard and soft Шаблон:Angle bracket:

A [[silent E|silent Шаблон:Angle bracket]] can occur after Шаблон:Angle bracket at the end of a word or component root word part of a larger word. The Шаблон:Angle bracket can serve a marking function indicating that the preceding Шаблон:Angle bracket is soft, as in dance and enhancement. The silent Шаблон:Angle bracket often additionally indicates that the vowel before Шаблон:Angle bracket is a long vowel, as in rice, mace, and pacesetter.

When adding suffixes with Шаблон:Angle bracket (such as -ed, -ing, -er, -est, -ism, -ist, -y, and -ie) to root words ending in Шаблон:Angle bracket, the final Шаблон:Angle bracket of the root word is often dropped and the root word retains the soft Шаблон:Angle bracket pronunciation as in danced, dancing, and dancer from dance. The suffixes -ify and -ise/-ize can be added to most nouns and adjectives to form new verbs. The pronunciation of Шаблон:Angle bracket in newly coined words using these suffixes is not always clear. The digraph Шаблон:Angle bracket may be used to retain the hard Шаблон:Angle bracket pronunciation in inflections and derivatives of a word such as trafficking from the verb traffic.

There are several cases in English in which hard and soft Шаблон:Angle bracket alternate with the addition of suffixes as in critic/criticism and electric/electricity (electrician has a soft Шаблон:Angle bracket pronunciation of Шаблон:IPA because of yod-coalescence).

Letter combinations

A number of two-letter combinations or digraphs follow distinct pronunciation patterns and do not follow the hard/soft distinction of Шаблон:Angle bracket. For example, Шаблон:Angle bracket may represent Шаблон:IPA (as in chicken), Шаблон:IPA (as in chef), or Шаблон:IPA (as in choir). Other letter combinations that don't follow the paradigm include Шаблон:Angle bracket, Шаблон:Angle bracket, Шаблон:Angle bracket, Шаблон:Angle bracket, Шаблон:Angle bracket, and Шаблон:Angle bracket. These come primarily from loanwords.

Besides a few examples (recce, soccer, Speccy), Шаблон:Angle bracket fits neatly with the regular rules of Шаблон:Angle bracket: Before Шаблон:Angle bracket, the second Шаблон:Angle bracket is soft while the first is hard. Words such as accept and success are pronounced with Шаблон:IPA and words such as succumb and accommodate are pronounced with Шаблон:IPA. Exceptions include loanwords from Italian such as cappuccino with Шаблон:IPA for Шаблон:Angle bracket.

Many placenames and other proper nouns with -cester (from Old English ceaster, meaning Roman station or walled town) are pronounced with Шаблон:IPA such as Worcester (Шаблон:IPA), Gloucester (Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA), and Leicester (Шаблон:IPA). The Шаблон:IPA pronunciation occurs as a combination of a historically soft Шаблон:Angle bracket pronunciation and historical elision of the first vowel of the suffix.

Italian loanwords

The original spellings and pronunciations of Italian loanwords have mostly been kept. Many English words that have been borrowed from Italian follow a distinct set of pronunciation rules corresponding to those in Italian. The Italian soft Шаблон:Angle bracket pronunciation is Шаблон:IPA (as in cello and ciao), while the hard Шаблон:Angle bracket is the same as in English. Italian orthography uses Шаблон:Angle bracket to indicate a hard pronunciation before Шаблон:Angle bracket or Шаблон:Angle bracket, analogous to English using Шаблон:Angle bracket (as in kill and keep) and Шаблон:Angle bracket (as in mosquito and queue).

In addition to hard and soft Шаблон:Angle bracket, the digraph Шаблон:Angle bracket represents Шаблон:IPA or, if between vowels, Шаблон:IPA when followed by Шаблон:Angle bracket or Шаблон:Angle bracket (as in scena or sciarpa with Шаблон:IPA, crescendo and fascia with Шаблон:IPA). Meanwhile, Шаблон:Angle bracket in Italian always represents Шаблон:IPA, not Шаблон:IPA, but English-speakers commonly pronounce it as Шаблон:IPA, perhaps in part due to familiarity with the German pronunciation; thus bruschetta often is realized not with the Шаблон:IPA of Italian Шаблон:IPA, but with Шаблон:IPA. Italian uses Шаблон:Angle bracket to indicate the geminate Шаблон:IPA before Шаблон:Angle bracket, Шаблон:Angle bracket, Шаблон:Angle bracket or Шаблон:IPA before Шаблон:Angle bracket or Шаблон:Angle bracket. English does not have geminate phonemes, thus loanwords with soft Шаблон:Angle bracket that are pronounced with Шаблон:IPA in Italian, such as cappuccino, are normally pronounced in English with the geminate simplified: Шаблон:IPA.

Suffixation issues

Rarely, the use of unusual suffixed forms to create neologisms occurs. For example, the words ace and race are both standard words but adding -ate or -age (both productive affixes in English) would create spellings that seem to indicate hard Шаблон:Angle bracket pronunciations. (Шаблон:Not a typo and racage)Шаблон:Citation needed. Potential remedies include altering the spelling to Шаблон:Not a typo and rasage, though no standard conventions exist.

Replacement with Шаблон:Angle bracket

Шаблон:See also Sometimes Шаблон:Angle bracket replaces Шаблон:Angle bracket, Шаблон:Angle bracket, or Шаблон:Angle bracket, as a trope for giving words a hard-edged or whimsical feel.Шаблон:Citation needed Examples include the Mortal Kombat franchise and product names such as Kool-Aid and Nesquik. More intensely, this use of Шаблон:Angle bracket has also been used to give extremist or racist connotations. Examples include Amerika or Amerikkka (where the Шаблон:Angle bracket is reminiscent of German and the totalitarian Nazi regime and the racist Ku Klux Klan, respectively).[5][6]

Other languages

Most modern Romance languages make the hard/soft distinction with Шаблон:Angle bracket,[2] except a few that have undergone spelling reforms such as Ladino and archaic variants like Sardinian. Some non-Romance languages like German, Danish and Dutch use Шаблон:Angle bracket in loanwords and also make this distinction.[7] The soft Шаблон:Angle bracket pronunciation, which occurs before Шаблон:Angle bracket, Шаблон:Angle bracket and Шаблон:Angle bracket,[8] is:

  1. Шаблон:IPA in Italian,[9] Romanian, and Old English;
  2. Шаблон:IPA in English, French,[3] Portuguese,[10] Catalan,[11] Latin American Spanish,[3] and in words loaned into Dutch and the Scandinavian languages;
  3. Шаблон:IPA in European and equatoguinean Spanish;[3]
  4. Шаблон:IPA in words loaned into German. This is one of the more archaic pronunciations, and was also the pronunciation in Old Spanish, Old French and other historical languages where it is now pronounced Шаблон:IPA. Most languages in eastern and central Europe came to use Шаблон:Angle bracket only for Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:Angle bracket only for Шаблон:IPA (this would include those Slavic languages that use Latin script, Hungarian, Albanian, and the Baltic languages).

The hard Шаблон:Angle bracket occurs in all other positions and represents Шаблон:IPA in all these aforementioned languages, including in the case of ⟨c⟩ that comes before the Romanian letter î, which is different from i.

In Italian[9] and Romanian,[12] the orthographic convention for representing Шаблон:IPA before front vowels is to add Шаблон:Angle bracket (Italian chiaro, Шаблон:IPA-it 'clear'). Шаблон:Angle bracket is used to accomplish the same purpose in Catalan,[11] Portuguese,[10] Spanish,[2] and French. Rarely, the use of unusual suffixed forms to create neologisms occurs. For example, the words saco and taco are both standard words but adding -es or -ez (both productive affixes in Spanish) would create spellings that seem to indicate soft Шаблон:Angle bracket pronunciations. (Шаблон:Not a typo and tacez). Potential remedies include altering the spelling to Шаблон:Not a typo and taquez, though no standard conventions exist. In French,[13] Catalan,[11] Portuguese,[10] and Old Spanish a cedilla is used to indicate a soft Шаблон:IPA pronunciation when it would otherwise seem to be hard. (French garçon Шаблон:IPA-fr, 'boy'; Portuguese coração Шаблон:IPA-pt, 'heart'; Catalan caçar Шаблон:IPA-ca, 'to hunt'). Spanish is similar, though Шаблон:Angle bracket is used instead of Шаблон:Angle bracket (e.g. corazón Шаблон:IPA-es, 'heart').[2] However, this is essentially equivalent because despite common misconception the symbol Шаблон:Angbr is actually derived from a Visigothic Z.

In the orthographies of Irish and Scottish Gaelic, most consonants including Шаблон:Angle bracket have a "broad" (velarized) vs "slender" distinction (palatalized) for many of its other consonants generally based on whether the nearest vowel is Шаблон:Angle bracket or Шаблон:Angle bracket, respectively. In Irish, ⟨c⟩ usually represents a hard Шаблон:IPA, but represents Шаблон:IPA before e or i, or after i. In Scottish Gaelic, broad Шаблон:Angle bracket is one of /kʰ ʰk ʰk k/, and slender Шаблон:Angle bracket is one of /kʰʲ ʰkʲ ʰkʲ kʲ/, depending on the phonetic environment.

A number of orthographies do not make a hard/soft distinction. The Шаблон:Angle bracket is always hard in Welsh but is always soft in Slavic languages, Hungarian, and in Hanyu Pinyin transcription system of Mandarin Chinese, where it represents Шаблон:IPA and in Indonesian and many of the transcriptions of the languages of India such as Sanskrit and Hindi, where it always represents Шаблон:IPA. See also C § Other languages.

Swedish has a similar phenomenon with hard and soft Шаблон:Angle bracket: this results from a similar historical palatalization development. Soft Шаблон:Angle bracket is typically a palatal Шаблон:IPA or an alveolo-palatal Шаблон:IPA, and occurs before not only Шаблон:Angle bracket, Шаблон:Angle bracket and Шаблон:Angle bracket, but also Шаблон:Angle bracket, Шаблон:Angle bracket, and Шаблон:Angle bracket. Another similar system with hard and soft Шаблон:Angle bracket is found in Faroese with the hard Шаблон:Angle bracket being Шаблон:IPA and the soft being Шаблон:IPA, and Turkish where the soft Шаблон:Angle bracket is Шаблон:IPA.

The Vietnamese alphabet, while based on European orthographies, does not have a hard or a soft Шаблон:Angle bracket per se. The letter Шаблон:Angle bracket, outside of the digraph Шаблон:Angle bracket, always represents a hard /k/ sound. However, it never occurs in "soft positions", i.e. before Шаблон:Angle bracket, where Шаблон:Angle bracket is used instead, while Шаблон:Angle bracket never occurs elsewhere except in the digraph Шаблон:Angle bracket and a few loanwords. Quite ironically, the names of the letters "c" and "k" are borrowed from Europe and those letters don't even occur in their own letter names (C: xê and K: ca.) Hồ Chí Minh had proposed a simplified spelling, as shown in the title of one of his books, 'Đường kách mệnh'.Шаблон:Citation needed

Old Bohemian has hard c, but pronounce was [x] Schecowitz, Tocowitz, CrudimШаблон:What

See also

Notes

Шаблон:Reflist

References

Партнерские ресурсы
Криптовалюты
Магазины
Хостинг
Разное

  1. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  2. ↑ 2,0 2,1 2,2 2,3 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  3. ↑ 3,0 3,1 3,2 3,3 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  4. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  5. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  6. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  7. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  8. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  9. ↑ 9,0 9,1 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  10. ↑ 10,0 10,1 10,2 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  11. ↑ 11,0 11,1 11,2 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  12. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  13. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
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