Английская Википедия:Hawaiian religion
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Use American English Шаблон:Use mdy dates
Hawaiian religion refers to the indigenous religious beliefs and practices of native Hawaiians, also known as the kapu system. Hawaiian religion is based largely on the tapu religion common in Polynesia and likely originated among the Tahitians and other Pacific islanders who landed in [[Hawaii|HawaiШаблон:Okinai]] between 500 and 1300 AD.[1] It is polytheistic and animistic, with a belief in many deities and spirits, including the belief that spirits are found in non-human beings and objects such as other animals, the waves, and the sky. It was only during the reign of Kamehameha I that a ruler from Hawaii island attempted to impose a singular "Hawaiian" religion on all the Hawaiian islands that was not Christianity.[2]
Today, Hawaiian religious practices are protected by the American Indian Religious Freedom Act.[3] Traditional Hawaiian religion is unrelated to the modern New Age practice known as "Huna".[4][5]
Beliefs
Deities
Hawaiian religion is polytheistic, with many deities, most prominently Kāne, Kū, Lono and Kanaloa.[6] Other notable deities include Laka, Kihawahine, Haumea, Papahānaumoku, and, most famously, Pele.[6] In addition, each family is considered to have one or more guardian spirits known as ʻaumakua that protected family.[6]
One breakdown of the Hawaiian pantheon[7] consists of the following groups:
- the four gods (Шаблон:Lang) – Kū, Kāne, Lono, and Kanaloa
- the forty male gods or aspects of Kāne (Шаблон:Lang)
- the four hundred gods and goddesses (Шаблон:Lang)
- the great multitude of gods and goddesses (Шаблон:Lang)
- the spirits (Шаблон:Lang)
- the guardians (Шаблон:Lang)
Another breakdown[8] consists of three major groups:
- the four gods, or akua: Kū, Kāne, Lono, Kanaloa
- many lesser gods, or kupua, each associated with certain professions
- guardian spirits, or [[Шаблон:Okinaaumakua]], associated with particular families
Atheism
Not all ancient Hawaiian believed in deities. Some ancient Hawaiians were atheists, referred to as 'aia'. [9]
Creation
One Hawaiian creation myth is embodied in the Kumulipo, an epic chant linking the [[Aliʻi|aliШаблон:Okinai]], or Hawaiian royalty, to the gods. The Kumulipo is divided into two sections: night, or Шаблон:Lang, and day, or Шаблон:Lang, with the former corresponding to divinity and the latter corresponding to humankind. After the birth of Шаблон:Lang, the woman, and Шаблон:Lang, the man, the man succeeds at seducing and reproducing with the woman before the god Kāne has a chance, thereby making the divine lineage of the gods younger than and thus subservient to the lineage of man. This, in turn, illustrates the transition of mankind from being symbols for the gods (the literal meaning of Шаблон:Lang) into the keeper of these symbols in the form of idols and the like.[10] The Kumulipo was recited during the time of Makahiki, to honor the god of fertility, Lono.[11]
Kahuna and Kapu
The Шаблон:Lang were well respected, educated individuals that made up a social hierarchy class that served the King and the Courtiers and assisted the Шаблон:Lang (Common People). Selected to serve many practical and governmental purposes, Шаблон:Lang often were healers, navigators, builders, prophets/temple workers, and philosophers.
They also talked with the spirits. Kahuna KūpaШаблон:Okinaiulu of Maui in 1867 described a counter-sorcery ritual to heal someone ill due to Шаблон:Lang, another’s evil thoughts. He said a Шаблон:Lang (cloth) was shaken. Prayers were said. Then, "If the evil spirit suddenly appears (Шаблон:Lang) and possesses the patient, then he or she can be immediately saved by the conversation between the practitioner and that spirit."[12]
Pukui and others believed kahuna did not have mystical transcendent experiences as described in other religions. Although a person who was possessed (Шаблон:Lang) would go into a trance-like state, it was not an ecstatic experience but simply a communion with the known spirits.Шаблон:Citation needed
Шаблон:Lang refers to a system of taboos designed to separate the spiritually pure from the potentially unclean. Thought to have arrived with PāШаблон:Okinaao, a priest or chief from Tahiti who arrived in HawaiШаблон:Okinai sometime around 1200 AD,[13] the Шаблон:Lang imposed a series of restrictions on daily life. Prohibitions included:
- The separation of men and women during mealtimes (a restriction known as Шаблон:Lang)
- Restrictions on the gathering and preparation of food
- Women separated from the community during their menses
- Restrictions on looking at, touching, or being in close proximity with chiefs and individuals of known spiritual power
- Restrictions on overfishing
Hawaiian tradition shows that Шаблон:Lang was an idea led by the Шаблон:Lang in order for Wākea, the sky father, to get alone with his daughter, HoШаблон:Okinaohokukalani without his wahine, or wife, Papa, the earth mother, noticing. The spiritually pure or Шаблон:Lang, meaning "sacred" and unclean or Шаблон:Lang were to be separated. Шаблон:Lang included:
- The use of a different ovens to cook the food for men and women
- Different eating places
- Women were forbidden to eat pig, coconut, banana, and certain red foods because of their male symbolism.[14][15]
- During times of war, the first two men to be killed were offered to the gods as sacrifices.[16]
Other Kapus included Шаблон:Lang, meaning "caring of the land" and Шаблон:Lang. Tradition says that Шаблон:Lang originated from the first child of Wākea and HoШаблон:Okinaohokukalani being deformed so they buried him in the ground and what sprouted became the first Шаблон:Lang, also known as taro. The Hawaiian islands are all children of Papa, Wākea and HoШаблон:Okinaohokukalani so basically meaning that they are older siblings of the Hawaiian chiefs.[17] Second child of Wākea and HoШаблон:Okinaohokukalani became the first Шаблон:Lang, or "Grand Chief". This came to be called Шаблон:Lang, the chiefly incest to create the "godly child".[18]
Punishments for breaking the Шаблон:Lang could include death, although if one could escape to a Шаблон:Lang (for example Pu'uhonua o Honaunau National Historical Park), a city of refuge, one could be saved.[19] Шаблон:Lang mandated long periods when the entire village must have absolute silence. No baby could cry, dog howl, or rooster crow, on pain of death.
Human sacrifice was not unknown.[20] Шаблон:Clarify
The Шаблон:Lang system remained in place until 1819 (see below).
Prayer and Шаблон:Lang
Шаблон:Main [[File:Pu'ukohola Heiau temple2.jpg|thumb|right|230px|One side of [[Puʻukoholā Heiau National Historic Site|PuШаблон:Okinaukohola Heiau]], a Hawaiian temple used as a place of worship and sacrifice.]] Prayer was an essential part of Hawaiian life, employed when building a house, making a canoe, and giving lomilomi massage. Hawaiians addressed prayers to various gods depending on the situation. When healers picked herbs for medicine, they usually prayed to Kū and Hina, male and female, right and left, upright and supine. The people worshiped Lono during Шаблон:Lang season and Kū during times of war.Шаблон:Citation needed
Histories from the 19th century describe prayer throughout the day, with specific prayers associated with mundane activities such as sleeping, eating, drinking, and traveling.[21][22] However, it has been suggested that the activity of prayer differed from the subservient styles of prayer often seen in the Western world:
Шаблон:Lang served as focal points for prayer in HawaiШаблон:Okinai. Offerings, sacrifices, and prayers were offered at these temples, the thousands of Шаблон:Lang (shrines), a multitude of Шаблон:Lang (sacred places), and at small Шаблон:Lang (altars) in individual homes.
History
Origins
Although it is unclear when settlers first came to the Hawaiian Islands, there is significant evidence that the islands were settled no later than 800 AD and immigration continued to about 1300 AD.[23] Settlers came from the Marquesas and greater Polynesia. At some point, a significant influx of Tahitian settlers landed on the Hawaiian islands, bringing with them their religious beliefs.
Early Hawaiian religion resembled other Polynesian religions in that it was largely focused on natural forces such as the tides, the sky, and volcanic activity as well as man's dependence on nature for subsistence. The major early gods reflected these characteristics, as the early Hawaiians worshiped Kāne (the god of the sky and creation), Kū (the god of war and male pursuits), Lono (the god of peace, rain, and fertility) and Kanaloa (the god of the ocean).
Early Hawaiian religion
As an Indigenous culture, spread among eight islands, with waves of immigration over hundreds of years from various parts of the South Pacific, religious practices evolved over time and from place to place in different ways.
Hawaiian scholar Mary Kawena Pukui, who was raised in Kaʻū, Hawaii, maintained that the early Hawaiian gods were benign.[24] One Molokai tradition follows this line of thought. Author and researcher Pali Jae Lee writes: "During these ancient times, the only 'religion' was one of family and oneness with all things. The people were in tune with nature, plants, trees, animals, the Шаблон:Lang, and each other. They respected all things and took care of all things. All was Шаблон:Lang."[25]
"In the dominant current of Western thought there is a fundamental separation between humanity and divinity. ... In many other cultures, however, such differences between human and divine do not exist. Some peoples have no concept of a ‘Supreme Being’ or ‘Creator God’ who is by nature ‘other than’ his creation. They do, however, claim to experience a spirit world in which beings more powerful than they are concerned for them and can be called upon for help."[26]
"Along with ancestors and gods, spirits are part of the family of Hawaiians.Шаблон:Clarify "There are many kinds of spirits that help for good and many that aid in evil. Some lie and deceive, and some are truthful ... It is a wonderful thing how the spirits (Шаблон:Lang of the dead and the ‘angels’ (Шаблон:Lang) of the Шаблон:Lang can possess living persons. Nothing is impossible to god-spirits, Шаблон:Lang."[27]
Post contact
King Kamehameha the Great died in 1819. Subsequently, two of his wives, Kaʻahumanu and Keōpūolani, then the two most powerful people in the kingdom, conferred with the Шаблон:Lang, Hewahewa. They convinced young Liholiho, Kamehameha II, to overthrow the Шаблон:Lang system. They ordered the people to burn the wooden statues and to tear down the rock temples.
Without the hierarchical system of religion in place, some abandoned the old gods, and others continued with cultural traditions of worshipping them, especially their family Шаблон:Lang.
Protestant Christian missionaries arrived from the United States from 1820 onwards, and eventually gained great political, moral and economic influence in the Kingdom of Hawaii. Most of the Шаблон:Lang converted to Christianity, including KaШаблон:Okinaahumanu and Keōpūolani, but it took 11 years for KaШаблон:Okinaahumanu to proclaim laws against ancient religious practices: Шаблон:Quote
Despite the outlawing of traditional Hawaiian religious practices, a number of traditions survived by integration, through practice in hiding, or through practice in rural communities in the islands. Surviving traditions include the worship of family ancestral gods or Шаблон:Lang, veneration of Шаблон:Lang or bones, and preservation of sacred places or Шаблон:Lang. Hula, at one time outlawed as a religious practice, today is performed in both spiritual and secular contexts.
Along with the surviving traditions, some Hawaiians practice Christianized versions of old traditions. Others practice the old faith as a co-religion.
In the 1930s, American author Max Freedom Long originated a philosophy and practice which he called "Huna".[28] While Long and his successors represent this invention as a type of ancient Hawaiian occultism,[28] scholars Rothstein and Chai consider it a New Age mix of cultural appropriation and fantasy,[4][5] and not representative of traditional Hawaiian religion.[4][5]
Contemporary practice
Traditional beliefs have also played a role in the politics of post-contact HawaiШаблон:Okinai. In the 1970s the Hawaiian religion experienced a resurgence during the Hawaiian Renaissance. In 1976 members of a group "Protect KahoШаблон:Okinaolawe Шаблон:OkinaOhana" filed suit in federal court over the use of [[Kahoolawe| KahoШаблон:Okinaolawe]] by the United States Navy for target practice. Charging that the practice disturbed important cultural and religious sites Aluli et al. v. Brown forced the Navy to survey and protect important sites, perform conservation activities, and allow limited access to the island for religious purposes.[29]
Outrage over the unearthing of 1,000 graves (dating back to 850 AD) during the construction of a Ritz-Carlton hotel on Maui in 1988 resulted in the redesign and relocation of the hotel inland, as well as the appointment of the site as a state historic place.[30]
Since 2014 an ongoing series of protests and demonstrations have taken place on the Island of Hawaii regarding the choosing of Mauna Kea for the site location of the Thirty Meter Telescope. These protests have become known as the Thirty Meter Telescope Protests. Some Hawaiians regard Mauna Kea as the most sacred mountain of Native Hawaiian religion and culture. Native Hawaiian cultural practitioners have repeatedly failed in court to prove that these practicesШаблон:Which? predate 1893 (the threshold for protection under Hawaii State law). Protests began locally within the state of Hawaii on October 7, 2014, but went global within weeks of the April 2, 2015, arrest of 31 people who had blockaded the roadway to keep construction crews off the summit.[31]
References
Further reading
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite web
- Шаблон:Cite web
- Beckwith, Martha. 1970. Hawaiian mythology. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Westervelt, W.D. 1915. Hawaiian legends of old Honolulu. Boston, G.H. Ellis Press
Шаблон:Polynesian mythology Шаблон:Religion topics Шаблон:Paganism
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 4,0 4,1 4,2 Rothstein, Mikael, in Lewis, James R. and Daren Kemp. Handbook of New Age. Brill Academic Publishers, 2007 Шаблон:ISBN
- ↑ 5,0 5,1 5,2 Chai, Makana Risser. "Huna, Max Freedom Long, and the Idealization of William Brigham," The Hawaiian Journal of History, Vol. 45 (2011) pp. 101-121
- ↑ 6,0 6,1 6,2 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Kauka, Jay. Religious Beliefs and Practices.
- ↑ Malo, D. (1903). Hawaiian Antiquities (Moolelo Hawaii) (Vol. 2). Hawaiian gazette Company, Limited.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Beckwith, Martha Warren. "Lono of the Makahiki." The Kumulipo, a Hawaiian Creation Chant (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1951), 18.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Pukui, Nana i ke Kumu: Look to the Source, Vol. II, 1972, p. 296
- ↑ Lilikalā KameШаблон:Okinaeleihiwa, Native Land and Foreign Desires: Pehea Lā E Pono Ai? (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1992.),23
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Malo, David, Hawaiian Antiquities. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Special Publication 2, Second Edition. (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1951)
- ↑ Lilikalā KameШаблон:Okinaeleihiwa, Native Land and Foreign Desires: Pehea Lā E Pono Ai? (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1992.),24
- ↑ Lilikalā KameШаблон:Okinaeleihiwa, Native Land and Foreign Desires: Pehea Lā E Pono Ai? (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1992.),25
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
Шаблон:Cite book - ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 28,0 28,1 Long, Max Freedom (2009) [1954]. The Secret Science Behind Miracles. Wildside Press. Шаблон:ISBN.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Closed accessШаблон:Cite webШаблон:Subscription required
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
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