Английская Википедия:Hexadecimal

Материал из Онлайн справочника
Перейти к навигацииПерейти к поиску

Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Redirect Шаблон:Redirect Шаблон:Redirect Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Numeral systems In mathematics and computing, the hexadecimal (also base-16 or simply hex) numeral system is a positional numeral system that represents numbers using a radix (base) of sixteen. Unlike the decimal system representing numbers using ten symbols, hexadecimal uses sixteen distinct symbols, most often the symbols "0"–"9" to represent values 0 to 9, and "A"–"F" (or alternatively "a"–"f") to represent values from ten to fifteen.

Software developers and system designers widely use hexadecimal numbers because they provide a human-friendly representation of binary-coded values. Each hexadecimal digit represents four bits (binary digits), also known as a nibble (or nybble).[1] For example, an 8-bit byte can have values ranging from Шаблон:Mono to Шаблон:Mono (0 to 255 decimal) in binary form, which can be conveniently represented as Шаблон:Mono to Шаблон:Mono in hexadecimal.

In mathematics, a subscript is typically used to specify the base. For example, the decimal value Шаблон:Val would be expressed in hexadecimal as Шаблон:Hexadecimal. In programming, several notations denote hexadecimal numbers, usually involving a prefix. The prefix 0x is used in C, which would denote this value as 0xШаблон:Hexadecimal.

Hexadecimal is used in the transfer encoding Base16, in which each byte of the plaintext is broken into two 4-bit values and represented by two hexadecimal digits.

Representation

Written representation

In most current use cases, the letters A–F or a–f represent the values 10–15, while the numerals 0–9 are used to represent their decimal values.

There is no universal convention to use lowercase or uppercase, so each is prevalent or preferred in particular environments by community standards or convention; even mixed case is used. Seven-segment displays use mixed-case AbCdEF to make digits that can be distinguished from each other.

There is some standardization of using spaces (rather than commas or another punctuation mark) to separate hex values in a long list. For instance, in the following hex dump, each 8-bit byte is a 2-digit hex number, with spaces between them, while the 32-bit offset at the start is an 8-digit hex number. 

00000000  57 69 6b 69 70 65 64 69  61 2c 20 74 68 65 20 66  
00000010  72 65 65 20 65 6e 63 79  63 6c 6f 70 65 64 69 61  
00000020  20 74 68 61 74 20 61 6e  79 6f 6e 65 20 63 61 6e 
00000030  20 65 64 69 74 0a

Distinguishing from decimal

In contexts where the base is not clear, hexadecimal numbers can be ambiguous and confused with numbers expressed in other bases. There are several conventions for expressing values unambiguously. A numerical subscript (itself written in decimal) can give the base explicitly: 15910 is decimal 159; 15916 is hexadecimal 159, which equals 34510. Some authors prefer a text subscript, such as 159decimal and 159hex, or 159d and 159h.

Donald Knuth introduced the use of a particular typeface to represent a particular radix in his book The TeXbook.[2] Hexadecimal representations are written there in a typewriter typeface: Шаблон:Mono

In linear text systems, such as those used in most computer programming environments, a variety of methods have arisen:

  • Шаблон:AnchorUnix (and related) shells, AT&T assembly language and likewise the C programming language (and its syntactic descendants such as C++, C#, Go, D, Java, JavaScript, Python and Windows PowerShell) use the prefix 0x for numeric constants represented in hex: 0x5A3. Character and string constants may express character codes in hexadecimal with the prefix \x followed by two hex digits: '\x1B' represents the Esc control character; "\x1B[0m\x1B[25;1H" is a string containing 11 characters with two embedded Esc characters.[3] To output an integer as hexadecimal with the printf function family, the format conversion code %X or %x is used.
  • In XML and XHTML, characters can be expressed as hexadecimal numeric character references using the notation &#xcode;, for instance ’ represents the character U+2019 (the right single quotation mark). If there is no Шаблон:Code the number is decimal (thus ’ is the same character).[4]
  • Шаблон:AnchorIn Intel-derived assembly languages and Modula-2,[5] hexadecimal is denoted with a suffixed Шаблон:Mono or Шаблон:Mono: FFh or 05A3H. Some implementations require a leading zero when the first hexadecimal digit character is not a decimal digit, so one would write 0FFh instead of FFh. Some other implementations (such as NASM) allow C-style numbers (0x42).
  • Шаблон:AnchorOther assembly languages (6502, Motorola), Pascal, Delphi, some versions of BASIC (Commodore), GameMaker Language, Godot and Forth use $ as a prefix: $5A3.
  • Some assembly languages (Microchip) use the notation H'ABCD' (for ABCD16). Similarly, Fortran 95 uses Z'ABCD'.
  • Ada and VHDL enclose hexadecimal numerals in based "numeric quotes": 16#5A3#. For bit vector constants VHDL uses the notation x"5A3".[6]
  • Verilog represents hexadecimal constants in the form 8'hFF, where 8 is the number of bits in the value and FF is the hexadecimal constant.
  • The Icon and Smalltalk languages use the prefix 16r: 16r5A3
  • PostScript and the Bourne shell and its derivatives denote hex with prefix 16#: 16#5A3.
  • Common Lisp uses the prefixes #x and #16r. Setting the variables *read-base*[7] and *print-base*[8] to 16 can also be used to switch the reader and printer of a Common Lisp system to Hexadecimal number representation for reading and printing numbers. Thus Hexadecimal numbers can be represented without the #x or #16r prefix code, when the input or output base has been changed to 16.
  • MSX BASIC,[9] QuickBASIC, FreeBASIC and Visual Basic prefix hexadecimal numbers with &H: &H5A3
  • BBC BASIC and Locomotive BASIC use & for hex.[10]
  • TI-89 and 92 series uses a 0h prefix: 0h5A3
  • ALGOL 68 uses the prefix 16r to denote hexadecimal numbers: 16r5a3. Binary, quaternary (base-4) and octal numbers can be specified similarly.
  • The most common format for hexadecimal on IBM mainframes (zSeries) and midrange computers (IBM i) running the traditional OS's (zOS, zVSE, zVM, TPF, IBM i) is X'5A3', and is used in Assembler, PL/I, COBOL, JCL, scripts, commands and other places. This format was common on other (and now obsolete) IBM systems as well. Occasionally quotation marks were used instead of apostrophes.

Syntax that is always Hex

Sometimes the numbers are known to be Hex.

Other symbols for 10–15 and mostly different symbol sets

The use of the letters A through F to represent the digits above 9 was not universal in the early history of computers.

Файл:Table de correspondance entre le Bibinaire et les autres notations.svg
Bibi-binary
Файл:Bruce Martin hexadecimal notation proposal.png
Bruce Alan Martin's hexadecimal notation proposal[19]
  • Bruce Alan Martin of Brookhaven National Laboratory considered the choice of A–F "ridiculous". In a 1968 letter to the editor of the CACM, he proposed an entirely new set of symbols based on the bit locations.[19]
Файл:Base-16 digits.svg
Ronald O. Whitaker's hexadecimal notation proposal.[20][21]
  • Ronald O. Whitaker of Rowco Engineering Co., in 1972, proposed a triangular font that allows "direct binary reading" in order to "permit both input and output from computers without respect to encoding matrices."[20][21]
  • Some seven-segment display decoder chips (i.e., 74LS47) show unexpected output due to logic designed only to produce 0–9 correctly.[22]

Verbal and digital representations

Since there were no traditional numerals to represent the quantities from ten to fifteen, alphabetic letters were re-employed as a substitute. Most European languages lack non-decimal-based words for some of the numerals eleven to fifteen. Some people read hexadecimal numbers digit by digit, like a phone number, or using the NATO phonetic alphabet, the Joint Army/Navy Phonetic Alphabet, or a similar ad-hoc system. In the wake of the adoption of hexadecimal among IBM System/360 programmers, Magnuson (1968)[23] suggested a pronunciation guide that gave short names to the letters of hexadecimal – for instance, "A" was pronounced "ann", B "bet", C "chris", etc.[23] Another naming-system was published online by Rogers (2007)[24] that tries to make the verbal representation distinguishable in any case, even when the actual number does not contain numbers A–F. Examples are listed in the tables below. Yet another naming system was elaborated by Babb (2015), based on a joke in Silicon Valley.[25]

Others have proposed using the verbal Morse Code conventions to express four-bit hexadecimal digits, with "dit" and "dah" representing zero and one, respectively, so that "0000" is voiced as "dit-dit-dit-dit" (....), dah-dit-dit-dah (-..-) voices the digit with a value of nine, and "dah-dah-dah-dah" (----) voices the hexadecimal digit for decimal 15.

Файл:Hexadecimal-counting.jpg
Hexadecimal finger-counting scheme

Systems of counting on digits have been devised for both binary and hexadecimal. Arthur C. Clarke suggested using each finger as an on/off bit, allowing finger counting from zero to 102310 on ten fingers.[26] Another system for counting up to FF16 (25510) is illustrated on the right.

Magnuson (1968)[23]
naming method
Number Pronunciation
A ann
B bet
C chris
D dot
E ernest
F frost
1A annteen
A0 annty
5B fifty-bet
A01C annty christeen
1AD0 annteen dotty
3A7D thirty-ann seventy-dot
Rogers (2007)[24]
naming method
Number Pronunciation
A ten
B eleven
C twelve
D draze
E eptwin
F fim
10 tex
11 oneteek
1F fimteek
50 fiftek
C0 twelftek
100 hundrek
1000 thousek
3E thirtek-eptwin
E1 eptek-one
C4A twelve-hundrek-fourtek-ten
1743 one-thousek-seven-
-hundrek-fourtek-three

Signs

The hexadecimal system can express negative numbers the same way as in decimal: −2A to represent −4210 and so on.

Hexadecimal can also be used to express the exact bit patterns used in the processor, so a sequence of hexadecimal digits may represent a signed or even a floating-point value. This way, the negative number −4210 can be written as FFFF FFD6 in a 32-bit CPU register (in two's-complement), as C228 0000 in a 32-bit FPU register or C045 0000 0000 0000 in a 64-bit FPU register (in the IEEE floating-point standard).

Hexadecimal exponential notation

Just as decimal numbers can be represented in exponential notation, so too can hexadecimal numbers. P notation uses the letter P (or p, for "power"), whereas E (or e) serves a similar purpose in decimal E notation. The number after the P is decimal and represents the binary exponent. Increasing the exponent by 1 multiplies by 2, not 16: Шаблон:Mono. Usually, the number is normalized so that the hexadecimal digits start with Шаблон:Mono (zero is usually Шаблон:Mono with no P).

Example: Шаблон:Mono represents Шаблон:Math.

P notation is required by the IEEE 754-2008 binary floating-point standard, and can be used for floating-point literals in the C99 edition of the C programming language.[27] Using the %a or %A conversion specifiers, this notation can be produced by implementations of the printf family of functions following the C99 specification[28] and Single Unix Specification (IEEE Std 1003.1) POSIX standard.[29]

Conversion

Binary conversion

Файл:Hewlett-Packard Model HP-16C Programmable RPN Calculator, HP's First and Only Calculator esp. for Programmers, built 1982-1989 (edited to rectangular, V2).jpg
The programmable RPN-calculator HP-16C Computer Scientist from 1982 was designed for programmers. One of its key features was the conversion between different numeral systems (note hex number in display).

Most computers manipulate binary data, but it is difficult for humans to work with a large number of digits for even a relatively small binary number. Although most humans are familiar with the base 10 system, it is much easier to map binary to hexadecimal than to decimal because each hexadecimal digit maps to a whole number of bits (410). This example converts 11112 to base ten. Since each position in a binary numeral can contain either a 1 or a 0, its value may be easily determined by its position from the right:

  • 00012 = 110
  • 00102 = 210
  • 01002 = 410
  • 10002 = 810

Therefore:

11112 = 810 + 410 + 210 + 110
  = 1510

With little practice, mapping 11112 to F16 in one step becomes easy: see table in written representation. The advantage of using hexadecimal rather than decimal increases rapidly with the size of the number. When the number becomes large, conversion to decimal is very tedious. However, when mapping to hexadecimal, it is trivial to regard the binary string as 4-digit groups and map each to a single hexadecimal digit.[30]

This example shows the conversion of a binary number to decimal, mapping each digit to the decimal value, and adding the results.

(01011110101101010010)2 = 26214410 + 6553610 + 3276810 + 1638410 + 819210 + 204810 + 51210 + 25610 + 6410 + 1610 + 210
  = 38792210

Compare this to the conversion to hexadecimal, where each group of four digits can be considered independently, and converted directly:

(01011110101101010010)2 = 0101  1110  1011  0101  00102
  = 5 E B 5 216
  = 5EB5216

The conversion from hexadecimal to binary is equally direct.[30]

Other simple conversions

Although quaternary (base 4) is little used, it can easily be converted to and from hexadecimal or binary. Each hexadecimal digit corresponds to a pair of quaternary digits and each quaternary digit corresponds to a pair of binary digits. In the above example 5 E B 5 216 = 11 32 23 11 024.

The octal (base 8) system can also be converted with relative ease, although not quite as trivially as with bases 2 and 4. Each octal digit corresponds to three binary digits, rather than four. Therefore, we can convert between octal and hexadecimal via an intermediate conversion to binary followed by regrouping the binary digits in groups of either three or four.

Division-remainder in source base

As with all bases there is a simple algorithm for converting a representation of a number to hexadecimal by doing integer division and remainder operations in the source base. In theory, this is possible from any base, but for most humans only decimal and for most computers only binary (which can be converted by far more efficient methods) can be easily handled with this method.

Let d be the number to represent in hexadecimal, and the series hihi−1...h2h1 be the hexadecimal digits representing the number.

  1. i ← 1
  2. hi ← d mod 16
  3. d ← (d − hi) / 16
  4. If d = 0 (return series hi) else increment i and go to step 2

"16" may be replaced with any other base that may be desired.

The following is a JavaScript implementation of the above algorithm for converting any number to a hexadecimal in String representation. Its purpose is to illustrate the above algorithm. To work with data seriously, however, it is much more advisable to work with bitwise operators. 

function toHex(d) {
  var r = d % 16;
  if (d - r == 0) {
    return toChar(r);
  }
  return toHex((d - r) / 16) + toChar(r);
}

function toChar(n) {
  const alpha = "0123456789ABCDEF";
  return alpha.charAt(n);
}

Conversion through addition and multiplication

Файл:Hexadecimal multiplication table.svg
A hexadecimal multiplication table

It is also possible to make the conversion by assigning each place in the source base the hexadecimal representation of its place value — before carrying out multiplication and addition to get the final representation. For example, to convert the number B3AD to decimal, one can split the hexadecimal number into its digits: B (1110), 3 (310), A (1010) and D (1310), and then get the final result by multiplying each decimal representation by 16p (p being the corresponding hex digit position, counting from right to left, beginning with 0). In this case, we have that:

Шаблон:Math

which is 45997 in base 10.

Tools for conversion

Many computer systems provide a calculator utility capable of performing conversions between the various radices frequently including hexadecimal.

In Microsoft Windows, the Calculator utility can be set to Programmer mode, which allows conversions between radix 16 (hexadecimal), 10 (decimal), 8 (octal) and 2 (binary), the bases most commonly used by programmers. In Programmer Mode, the on-screen numeric keypad includes the hexadecimal digits A through F, which are active when "Hex" is selected. In hex mode, however, the Windows Calculator supports only integers.

Elementary arithmetic

Elementary operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division can be carried out indirectly through conversion to an alternate numeral system, such as the commonly-used decimal system or the binary system where each hex digit corresponds to four binary digits.

Alternatively, one can also perform elementary operations directly within the hex system itself — by relying on its addition/multiplication tables and its corresponding standard algorithms such as long division and the traditional subtraction algorithm.

Real numbers

Rational numbers

As with other numeral systems, the hexadecimal system can be used to represent rational numbers, although repeating expansions are common since sixteen (1016) has only a single prime factor: two.

For any base, 0.1 (or "1/10") is always equivalent to one divided by the representation of that base value in its own number system. Thus, whether dividing one by two for binary or dividing one by sixteen for hexadecimal, both of these fractions are written as 0.1. Because the radix 16 is a perfect square (42), fractions expressed in hexadecimal have an odd period much more often than decimal ones, and there are no cyclic numbers (other than trivial single digits). Recurring digits are exhibited when the denominator in lowest terms has a prime factor not found in the radix; thus, when using hexadecimal notation, all fractions with denominators that are not a power of two result in an infinite string of recurring digits (such as thirds and fifths). This makes hexadecimal (and binary) less convenient than decimal for representing rational numbers since a larger proportion lie outside its range of finite representation.

All rational numbers finitely representable in hexadecimal are also finitely representable in decimal, duodecimal and sexagesimal: that is, any hexadecimal number with a finite number of digits also has a finite number of digits when expressed in those other bases. Conversely, only a fraction of those finitely representable in the latter bases are finitely representable in hexadecimal. For example, decimal 0.1 corresponds to the infinite recurring representation 0.1Шаблон:Overline in hexadecimal. However, hexadecimal is more efficient than duodecimal and sexagesimal for representing fractions with powers of two in the denominator. For example, 0.062510 (one-sixteenth) is equivalent to 0.116, 0.0912, and 0;3,4560.

n Decimal
Prime factors of: base, b = 10: 2, 5;
b − 1 = 9: 3 		Hexadecimal
Prime factors of: base, b = 16Шаблон:Sub = 10: 2; b − 1 = 15Шаблон:Sub = F: 3, 5
Reciprocal Prime factors Positional representation
(decimal) 		Positional representation
(hexadecimal) 		Prime factors Reciprocal
2 1/2 2 0.5 0.8 2 1/2
3 1/3 3 0.3333... = 0.Шаблон:Overline 0.5555... = 0.Шаблон:Overline 3 1/3
4 1/4 2 0.25 0.4 2 1/4
5 1/5 5 0.2 0.Шаблон:Overline 5 1/5
6 1/6 2, 3 0.1Шаблон:Overline 0.2Шаблон:Overline 2, 3 1/6
7 1/7 7 0.Шаблон:Overline 0.Шаблон:Overline 7 1/7
8 1/8 2 0.125 0.2 2 1/8
9 1/9 3 0.Шаблон:Overline 0.Шаблон:Overline 3 1/9
10 1/10 2, 5 0.1 0.1Шаблон:Overline 2, 5 1/A
11 1/11 11 0.Шаблон:Overline 0.Шаблон:Overline B 1/B
12 1/12 2, 3 0.08Шаблон:Overline 0.1Шаблон:Overline 2, 3 1/C
13 1/13 13 0.Шаблон:Overline 0.Шаблон:Overline D 1/D
14 1/14 2, 7 0.0Шаблон:Overline 0.1Шаблон:Overline 2, 7 1/E
15 1/15 3, 5 0.0Шаблон:Overline 0.Шаблон:Overline 3, 5 1/F
16 1/16 2 0.0625 0.1 2 1/10
17 1/17 17 0.Шаблон:Overline 0.Шаблон:Overline 11 1/11
18 1/18 2, 3 0.0Шаблон:Overline 0.0Шаблон:Overline 2, 3 1/12
19 1/19 19 0.Шаблон:Overline 0.Шаблон:Overline 13 1/13
20 1/20 2, 5 0.05 0.0Шаблон:Overline 2, 5 1/14
21 1/21 3, 7 0.Шаблон:Overline 0.Шаблон:Overline 3, 7 1/15
22 1/22 2, 11 0.0Шаблон:Overline 0.0Шаблон:Overline 2, B 1/16
23 1/23 23 0.Шаблон:Overline 0.Шаблон:Overline 17 1/17
24 1/24 2, 3 0.041Шаблон:Overline 0.0Шаблон:Overline 2, 3 1/18
25 1/25 5 0.04 0.Шаблон:Overline 5 1/19
26 1/26 2, 13 0.0Шаблон:Overline 0.0Шаблон:Overline 2, D 1/1A
27 1/27 3 0.Шаблон:Overline 0.Шаблон:Overline 3 1/1B
28 1/28 2, 7 0.03Шаблон:Overline 0.0Шаблон:Overline 2, 7 1/1C
29 1/29 29 0.Шаблон:Overline 0.Шаблон:Overline 1D 1/1D
30 1/30 2, 3, 5 0.0Шаблон:Overline 0.0Шаблон:Overline 2, 3, 5 1/1E
31 1/31 31 0.Шаблон:Overline 0.Шаблон:Overline 1F 1/1F
32 1/32 2 0.03125 0.08 2 1/20
33 1/33 3, 11 0.Шаблон:Overline 0.Шаблон:Overline 3, B 1/21
34 1/34 2, 17 0.0Шаблон:Overline 0.0Шаблон:Overline 2, 11 1/22
35 1/35 5, 7 0.0Шаблон:Overline 0.Шаблон:Overline 5, 7 1/23
36 1/36 2, 3 0.02Шаблон:Overline 0.0Шаблон:Overline 2, 3 1/24

Irrational numbers

The table below gives the expansions of some common irrational numbers in decimal and hexadecimal.

Number Positional representation
Decimal Hexadecimal
[[Square root of 2|Шаблон:Sqrt]] (the length of the diagonal of a unit square) Шаблон:Val... 1.6A09E667F3BCD...
[[Square root of 3|Шаблон:Sqrt]] (the length of the diagonal of a unit cube) Шаблон:Val... 1.BB67AE8584CAA...
[[Square root of 5|Шаблон:Sqrt]] (the length of the diagonal of a 1×2 rectangle) Шаблон:Val... 2.3C6EF372FE95...
Шаблон:Mvar (phi, the golden ratio = Шаблон:Math) Шаблон:Val... 1.9E3779B97F4A...
Шаблон:Mvar (pi, the ratio of circumference to diameter of a circle) Шаблон:Val
Шаблон:Val... 		3.243F6A8885A308D313198A2E0
3707344A4093822299F31D008...
Шаблон:Mvar (the base of the natural logarithm) Шаблон:Val... 2.B7E151628AED2A6B...
Шаблон:Mvar (the Thue–Morse constant) Шаблон:Val... 0.6996 9669 9669 6996...
Шаблон:Mvar (the limiting difference between the harmonic series and the natural logarithm) Шаблон:Val... 0.93C467E37DB0C7A4D1B...

Powers

Powers of two have very simple expansions in hexadecimal. The first sixteen powers of two are shown below.

2x Value Value (Decimal)
20 1 1
21 2 2
22 4 4
23 8 8
24 10hex 16dec
25 20hex 32dec
26 40hex 64dec
27 80hex 128dec
28 100hex 256dec
29 200hex 512dec
2A (2Шаблон:Sup) 400hex 1024dec
2B (2Шаблон:Sup) 800hex 2048dec
2C (2Шаблон:Sup) 1000hex 4096dec
2D (2Шаблон:Sup) 2000hex 8192dec
2E (2Шаблон:Sup) 4000hex 16,384dec
2F (2Шаблон:Sup) 8000hex 32,768dec
210 (2Шаблон:Sup) 10000hex 65,536dec

Cultural history

The traditional Chinese units of measurement were base-16. For example, one jīn (斤) in the old system equals sixteen taels. The suanpan (Chinese abacus) can be used to perform hexadecimal calculations such as additions and subtractions.[31]

As with the duodecimal system, there have been occasional attempts to promote hexadecimal as the preferred numeral system. These attempts often propose specific pronunciation and symbols for the individual numerals.[32] Some proposals unify standard measures so that they are multiples of 16.[33][34] An early such proposal was put forward by John W. Nystrom in Project of a New System of Arithmetic, Weight, Measure and Coins: Proposed to be called the Tonal System, with Sixteen to the Base, published in 1862.[35] Nystrom among other things suggested hexadecimal time, which subdivides a day by 16, so that there are 16 "hours" (or "10 tims", pronounced tontim) in a day.[36]

Шаблон:AnchorШаблон:Wiktionary The word hexadecimal is first recorded in 1952.[37] It is macaronic in the sense that it combines Greek ἕξ (hex) "six" with Latinate -decimal. The all-Latin alternative sexadecimal (compare the word sexagesimal for base 60) is older, and sees at least occasional use from the late 19th century.[38] It is still in use in the 1950s in Bendix documentation. Schwartzman (1994) argues that use of sexadecimal may have been avoided because of its suggestive abbreviation to sex.[39] Many western languages since the 1960s have adopted terms equivalent in formation to hexadecimal (e.g. French hexadécimal, Italian esadecimale, Romanian hexazecimal, Serbian хексадецимални, etc.) but others have introduced terms which substitute native words for "sixteen" (e.g. Greek δεκαεξαδικός, Icelandic sextándakerfi, Russian шестнадцатеричной etc.)

Terminology and notation did not become settled until the end of the 1960s. Donald Knuth in 1969 argued that the etymologically correct term would be senidenary, or possibly sedenary, a Latinate term intended to convey "grouped by 16" modelled on binary, ternary and quaternary etc. According to Knuth's argument, the correct terms for decimal and octal arithmetic would be denary and octonary, respectively.[40] Alfred B. Taylor used senidenary in his mid-1800s work on alternative number bases, although he rejected base 16 because of its "incommodious number of digits".[41][42]

The now-current notation using the letters A to F establishes itself as the de facto standard beginning in 1966, in the wake of the publication of the Fortran IV manual for IBM System/360, which (unlike earlier variants of Fortran) recognizes a standard for entering hexadecimal constants.[43] As noted above, alternative notations were used by NEC (1960) and The Pacific Data Systems 1020 (1964). The standard adopted by IBM seems to have become widely adopted by 1968, when Bruce Alan Martin in his letter to the editor of the CACM complains that Шаблон:Blockquote Martin's argument was that use of numerals 0 to 9 in nondecimal numbers "imply to us a base-ten place-value scheme": "Why not use entirely new symbols (and names) for the seven or fifteen nonzero digits needed in octal or hex. Even use of the letters A through P would be an improvement, but entirely new symbols could reflect the binary nature of the system".[19] He also argued that "re-using alphabetic letters for numerical digits represents a gigantic backward step from the invention of distinct, non-alphabetic glyphs for numerals sixteen centuries ago" (as Brahmi numerals, and later in a Hindu–Arabic numeral system), and that the recent ASCII standards (ASA X3.4-1963 and USAS X3.4-1968) "should have preserved six code table positions following the ten decimal digits -- rather than needlessly filling these with punctuation characters" (":;<=>?") that might have been placed elsewhere among the 128 available positions.

Base16 (transfer encoding)

Base16 (as a proper name without a space) can also refer to a binary to text encoding belonging to the same family as Base32, Base58, and Base64.

In this case, data is broken into 4-bit sequences, and each value (between 0 and 15 inclusively) is encoded using one of 16 symbols from the ASCII character set. Although any 16 symbols from the ASCII character set can be used, in practice the ASCII digits '0'–'9' and the letters 'A'–'F' (or the lowercase 'a'–'f') are always chosen in order to align with standard written notation for hexadecimal numbers.

There are several advantages of Base16 encoding:

  • Most programming languages already have facilities to parse ASCII-encoded hexadecimal
  • Being exactly half a byte, 4-bits is easier to process than the 5 or 6 bits of Base32 and Base64 respectively
  • The symbols 0–9 and A–F are universal in hexadecimal notation, so it is easily understood at a glance without needing to rely on a symbol lookup table
  • Many CPU architectures have dedicated instructions that allow access to a half-byte (otherwise known as a "nibble"), making it more efficient in hardware than Base32 and Base64

The main disadvantages of Base16 encoding are:

  • Space efficiency is only 50%, since each 4-bit value from the original data will be encoded as an 8-bit byte. In contrast, Base32 and Base64 encodings have a space efficiency of 63% and 75% respectively.
  • Possible added complexity of having to accept both uppercase and lowercase letters

Support for Base16 encoding is ubiquitous in modern computing. It is the basis for the W3C standard for URL percent encoding, where a character is replaced with a percent sign "%" and its Base16-encoded form. Most modern programming languages directly include support for formatting and parsing Base16-encoded numbers.

See also

References

Шаблон:Reflist

Партнерские ресурсы
Криптовалюты
Магазины
Хостинг
Разное

  1. ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
  2. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  3. ↑ The string "\x1B[0m\x1B[25;1H" specifies the character sequence Шаблон:Mono. These are the escape sequences used on an ANSI terminal that reset the character set and color, and then move the cursor to line 25.
  4. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  5. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  6. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  7. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  8. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  9. ↑ MSX is Coming — Part 2: Inside MSX Шаблон:Webarchive Compute!, issue 56, January 1985, p. 52
  10. ↑ BBC BASIC programs are not fully portable to Microsoft BASIC (without modification) since the latter takes & to prefix octal values. (Microsoft BASIC primarily uses &O to prefix octal, and it uses &H to prefix hexadecimal, but the ampersand alone yields a default interpretation as an octal prefix.
  11. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  12. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  13. ↑ 13,0 13,1 13,2 13,3 13,4 13,5 13,6 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Savard_2018_CA не указан текст
  14. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Bendix не указан текст
  15. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Illiac-I не указан текст
  16. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок RP_1957_LGP-30 не указан текст
  17. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок PERM не указан текст
  18. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  19. ↑ 19,0 19,1 19,2 Шаблон:Cite journal
  20. ↑ 20,0 20,1 Шаблон:Cite news (1 page)
  21. ↑ 21,0 21,1 Шаблон:Cite web (7 pages)
  22. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web (29 pages)
  23. ↑ 23,0 23,1 23,2 Шаблон:Cite magazine
  24. ↑ 24,0 24,1 Шаблон:Cite web
  25. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  26. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  27. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  28. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  29. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  30. ↑ 30,0 30,1 Шаблон:Cite book
  31. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  32. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  33. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  34. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  35. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  36. ↑ Nystrom (1862), p. 33: "In expressing time, angle of a circle, or points on the compass, the unit tim should be noted as integer, and parts thereof as tonal fractions, as 5·86 tims is five times and metonby [*"sutim and metonby" John Nystrom accidentally gives part of the number in decimal names; in Nystrom's pronunciation scheme, 5=su, 8=me, 6=by, c.f. unifoundry.com Шаблон:Webarchive ]."
  37. ↑ C. E. Fröberg, Hexadecimal Conversion Tables, Lund (1952).
  38. ↑ The Century Dictionary of 1895 has sexadecimal in the more general sense of "relating to sixteen". An early explicit use of sexadecimal in the sense of "using base 16" is found also in 1895, in the Journal of the American Geographical Society of New York, vols. 27–28, p. 197.
  39. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book s.v. hexadecimal
  40. ↑ Knuth, Donald. (1969). The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 2. Шаблон:Isbn. (Chapter 17.)
  41. ↑ Alfred B. Taylor, Report on Weights and Measures, Pharmaceutical Association, 8th Annual Session, Boston, 15 September 1859. See pages and 33 and 41.
  42. ↑ Alfred B. Taylor, "Octonary numeration and its application to a system of weights and measures", Proc Amer. Phil. Soc. Vol XXIV Шаблон:Webarchive, Philadelphia, 1887; pages 296–366. See pages 317 and 322.
  43. ↑ IBM System/360 FORTRAN IV Language Шаблон:Webarchive (1966), p. 13.
Источник — http://wikihandbk.com/ruwiki/index.php?title=Английская_Википедия:Hexadecimal&oldid=15232120