Английская Википедия:High German consonant shift

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Шаблон:Short description

Файл:German dialectal map.PNG
The High German languages are subdivided into Upper German (green) and Central German (cyan), and are distinguished from Low German (yellow) and the Low Franconian languages. The main isoglosses – the Benrath and Speyer lines – are marked in green. This map shows the modern boundaries of the languages after 1945.

Шаблон:IPA notice In historical linguistics, the High German consonant shift or second Germanic consonant shift is a phonological development (sound change) that took place in the southern parts of the West Germanic dialect continuum in several phases. It probably began between the 3rd and 5th centuries and was almost complete before the earliest written records in High German were produced in the 8th century. From Proto-Germanic, the resulting language, Old High German (henceforth, OHG), can be neatly contrasted with the other continental West Germanic languages, which for the most part did not experience the shift, and with Old English, which remained unaffected.

General description

The High German consonant shift altered a number of consonants in the southern German dialects—which includes Standard German, Yiddish, and Luxembourgish—and explains why many German words have different consonants from the related words in English, Dutch, and Scandinavian languages.[1] The term is sometimes used to refer to a core group of nine individual consonant modifications. Alternatively, it may encompass other phonological changes that took place in the same period.[2] For the core group, there are three changes, which may be thought of as three successive phases. Each phase affected three consonants, making nine modifications in total:

  1. The three Germanic voiceless stops became fricatives in certain phonetic environments: English ship Шаблон:IPAc-en, Dutch Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-nl, Norwegian Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-no versus German Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-de;
  2. The same sounds became affricates in other positions: Eng. apple Шаблон:IPAc-en, Du. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-nl, Nor. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-no versus Ger. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-de; and
  3. The three voiced stops became voiceless: Eng. door Шаблон:IPAc-en, Du. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-nl, Nor. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-no versus Ger. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-de.

Since phases 1 and 2 affect the same voiceless sounds, some scholars find it more convenient to treat them together, making for only a two-phase process: shifts in voiceless consonants (phases 1–2 of the three-phase model) and in voiced consonants (phase 3). The two-phase model has advantages for typology, but does not reflect chronology.[3]

Of the other changes that sometimes are bracketed within the High German consonant shift, the most important (sometimes thought of as the fourth phase) is:

4. Шаблон:IPA (and its allophone Шаблон:IPA) became Шаблон:IPA (this Шаблон:IPAc-en: Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-de). This also affects Dutch (this: Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-nl), and has parallels in Norwegian, Danish, and Swedish, but not Icelandic (this: Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-no / Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-sv, but Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-is, respectively).

This phenomenon is known as the High German consonant shift because the core group affects the High German languages of the mountainous south.[4] It is also known as the "second Germanic" consonant shift to distinguish it from the "[first] Germanic consonant shift" as defined by Grimm's law and its refinement, Verner's law.

The High German consonant shift occurred not in a single movement but as a series of waves over several centuries. The geographical extents of these waves vary. They all appear in the southernmost dialects, and spread northward to differing degrees, giving the impression of a series of pulses of varying force emanating from what is now Austria and Switzerland. Some are found only in the southern parts of Alemannic German (which includes Swiss German) or Bavarian (which includes Austrian), but most are found throughout the Upper German area, and some spread into the Central German dialects. Indeed, Central German is often defined as the area between the Шаблон:Lang/Шаблон:Lang and the Шаблон:Lang/Шаблон:Lang boundaries, thus between complete shift of Germanic Шаблон:IPA (Upper German) and complete lack thereof (Low German). The shift Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA was more successful; it spread all the way to the North Sea and affected Dutch as well as German. Most of these changes have become part of modern Standard German.[5]

The High German consonant shift is a good example of a chain shift, as was its predecessor, the first Germanic consonant shift. For example, phases 1 and 2 left the language without a Шаблон:IPA phoneme, as this had shifted to Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA. Phase 3 filled this gap (Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA), but left a new gap at Шаблон:IPA, which phase 4 then filled (Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA).

Overview table

The effects of the shift are most obvious for the non-specialist when comparing Modern German lexemes containing shifted consonants with their Modern English or Dutch unshifted equivalents. The following overview table is arranged according to the original Proto-Indo-European (PIE) phonemes. The pairs of words used to illustrate sound shifts are cognates; they need not be semantic equivalents.

PIE > Germanic
G=Grimm's Law
V=Verner's Law
High German shift
Phase Germanic > OHG Modern examples Unshifted cognates Century Geographical extent[note 1] Standard
German
Luxem-
bourgish
Standard
Dutch
G: Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA 1 Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA German Шаблон:Lang
German Шаблон:Lang
English sleep
English ship
4/5 Upper and Central German Шаблон:Yes Шаблон:Yes Шаблон:No
2 Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA German Шаблон:Lang
German Шаблон:Lang
German Шаблон:Lang [note 2]
English plough
English apple
English sharp
6/7 Upper German Шаблон:Yes Шаблон:No Шаблон:No
G: Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA 1 Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA German Шаблон:Lang [note 3]
German Шаблон:Lang
German Шаблон:Lang
English eat
English that
English out
4/5 Upper and Central German Шаблон:Yes Шаблон:Yes Шаблон:No
2 Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA German Шаблон:Lang [note 4]
German Шаблон:Lang
English two
English toe
5/6 Upper and Central German Шаблон:Yes Шаблон:Yes Шаблон:No
G: Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA 1 Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA German Шаблон:Lang
German Шаблон:Lang
English make
Dutch Шаблон:Lang [note 5]
4/5 Upper and Central German Шаблон:Yes Шаблон:Yes Шаблон:No
2 Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA Bavarian Шаблон:Lang
Swiss Chäs
German Шаблон:Lang
German Käse [note 6]
7/8 Southernmost Austro-Bavarian and High Alemannic Шаблон:No Шаблон:No Шаблон:No
G: (Шаблон:IPA >) Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA
V: (Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPAslink >) Шаблон:IPAslink > Шаблон:IPA
3 Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA Bavarian Шаблон:Lang
Bavarian Шаблон:Lang
German Шаблон:Lang
German Шаблон:Lang "hill"
German Шаблон:Lang "(you) are"
English Шаблон:Lang
8/9 Parts of Bavarian/Alemannic; other Upper German only for geminates Шаблон:Partial Шаблон:Partial Шаблон:No
G: (Шаблон:IPA >) Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA
V: (Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA >) Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA
3 Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA German Шаблон:Lang
German Шаблон:Lang
German Шаблон:Lang
English day
English middle
Dutch Шаблон:Lang [note 7]
8/9 Upper German Шаблон:Yes Шаблон:No Шаблон:No
G: (Шаблон:IPA >) Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA
V: (Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA >) Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA
3 Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA Bavarian Шаблон:Lang
German Шаблон:Lang
German Шаблон:Lang, English God
English bridge, Dutch Шаблон:Lang
8/9 Parts of Bavarian/Alemannic; other Upper German only for geminates Шаблон:Partial Шаблон:Partial Шаблон:No
G: Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA 4 Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA German Шаблон:Lang
German Шаблон:Lang
English thorn
English brother
9/10 Throughout continental West Germanic Шаблон:Yes Шаблон:Yes Шаблон:Yes
G: Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPAblink
V: Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPAslink > Шаблон:IPA
Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA German Шаблон:Lang
German Шаблон:Lang
English give
English wife
7/8 Upper German and some varieties of Central German Шаблон:Yes Шаблон:No Шаблон:No
G: Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA
V: Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA
Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA German Шаблон:Lang, English good Icelandic Шаблон:Lang 2–4 Throughout West Germanic Шаблон:Yes Шаблон:Yes Шаблон:Yes
G: Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPAblink
V: Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA
Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA German Шаблон:Lang, English good Dutch Шаблон:Lang [note 8] 7/8 Upper German and some varieties of Central German Шаблон:Yes Шаблон:Partial Шаблон:No

Notes: Шаблон:Reflist

Core group

Phase 1

The first phase, which affected the whole High German area, affected the voiceless plosives Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA in intervocalic and word-final position. These became geminated (long) fricatives, except in word-final position, where they were shortened and merged with the existing single consonants. Geminate plosives in words like Шаблон:Lang "apple" or Шаблон:Lang "cat" were not affected, nor were plosives preceded by another consonant like in Шаблон:Lang "sharp" or Шаблон:Lang "heart". These remained unshifted until the second phase.

Шаблон:IPA presumably went through an intermediate bilabial stage Шаблон:IPAslink, although no distinction between Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA was made in writing. It can be assumed that the two sounds merged early on.

The letter Шаблон:Angle bracket stands for a voiceless fricative that is distinct somehow from Шаблон:Angle bracket. The exact nature of the distinction is unknown; possibly Шаблон:Angle bracket was apical Шаблон:IPA while Шаблон:Angle bracket was laminal Шаблон:IPA (a similar distinction exists in Basque and formerly in Old Spanish). It remained distinct from Шаблон:IPA throughout Old High German and most of the Middle High German period, and was not affected by the late Old High German voicing of prevocalic Шаблон:IPA to Шаблон:IPA.

In many West Central German dialects, the words Шаблон:Lang ("that, what, it") did not shift to Шаблон:Lang, even though t was shifted in other words. It is not quite clear why these exceptions occurred.

Examples:

Old English Шаблон:Lang: Old High German Шаблон:Lang (English sleep Шаблон:IPAc-en, Dutch Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-nl: German Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-de)
OE Шаблон:Lang : OHG Шаблон:Lang (English street Шаблон:IPAc-en, Dutch Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-nl : German Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-de)
OE Шаблон:Lang : OHG Шаблон:Lang (English rich Шаблон:IPAc-en, Dutch Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-nl : German Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-de)

Phase 2

In the second phase, which was completed by the 8th century, the same sounds became affricates in three environments: in word-initial position; when geminated; and after a liquid (Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA) or nasal (Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA).

Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA (also written Шаблон:Angle bracket in OHG)
Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA (written Шаблон:Angle bracket or Шаблон:Angle bracket)
Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA (written Шаблон:Angle bracket in OHG).

Examples:

OE Шаблон:Lang : OHG Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang (English apple, Dutch Шаблон:Lang, Low German Шаблон:Lang : German Шаблон:Lang)
OE Шаблон:Lang : OHG Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang (English sharp, Dutch Шаблон:Lang, Low German Шаблон:Lang : German Шаблон:Lang)
OE Шаблон:Lang : OHG Шаблон:Lang (English cat, Dutch Шаблон:Lang, Low German Шаблон:Lang : German Шаблон:Lang)
OE Шаблон:Lang : OHG Шаблон:Lang (English tame, Dutch Шаблон:Lang, Low German Шаблон:Lang : German Шаблон:Lang)
OE Шаблон:Lang : OHG Шаблон:Lang (English lick, Dutch Шаблон:Lang, Low German Шаблон:Lang, German Шаблон:Lang : High Alemannic Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang/Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA)
OE Шаблон:Lang : OHG Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang (English work, Dutch Шаблон:Lang, Low German Шаблон:Lang, German Шаблон:Lang : High Alemannic Шаблон:Lang/Шаблон:Lang)

The shift did not take place where the plosive was preceded by a fricative, i.e. in the combinations Шаблон:IPA. Шаблон:IPA also remained unshifted in the combination Шаблон:IPA.

OE Шаблон:Lang : OHG Шаблон:Lang (English sparrow, Dutch Шаблон:Lang, German Шаблон:Lang)
OE Шаблон:Lang : OHG Шаблон:Lang (English mast, Dutch Шаблон:Lang, Low German Шаблон:Lang, German Шаблон:Lang)
OE Шаблон:Lang : OHG Шаблон:Lang (English night, Dutch Шаблон:Lang, Low German Шаблон:Lang, German Шаблон:Lang)
OE Шаблон:Lang : OHG Шаблон:Lang (English true, Dutch Шаблон:Lang, Low German Шаблон:Lang, German Шаблон:Lang.[6])

Following Шаблон:IPA also prevented the shift of Шаблон:IPA in words which end in Шаблон:Lang in modern Standard German, e.g. Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang. These stems had Шаблон:IPA in OHG inflected forms (Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang).

For the subsequent change of Шаблон:IPA, written Шаблон:Angle bracket, see below.

These affricates (especially Шаблон:IPA) have simplified into fricatives in some dialects. Шаблон:IPA was simplified to Шаблон:IPA in a number of circumstances. In Yiddish and some German dialects, this occurred in initial positions, e.g., Dutch Шаблон:Lang: German Шаблон:Lang : Yiddish Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang 'horse'. In modern standard German, the pronunciation Шаблон:IPA for word-initial Шаблон:Angbr is also a very common feature of northern and central German accents (i.e. in regions where Шаблон:IPA does not occur in the native dialects; compare German phonology).

There was an even stronger tendency to simplify Шаблон:IPA after Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA. This simplification is also reflected in modern standard German, e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'to throw' ← OHG Шаблон:LangШаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang 'to help' ← OHG Шаблон:LangШаблон:Lang. Only one standard word with Шаблон:IPA remains: Шаблон:Wikt-lang 'carp' ← OHG Шаблон:Lang.

Phase 3

The third phase, which had the most limited geographical range, saw the voiced plosives become voiceless.

b > p
d > t
g > k

Of these, only the dental shift d > t universally finds its way into standard German (though with relatively many exceptions, partly due to Low and Central German influence). The other two occur in standard German only in original geminates, e.g. Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang vs. Dutch Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang "rib, bridge". For single consonants, b > p and g > k are restricted to High Alemannic German in Switzerland, and south Bavarian dialects in Austria.

This phase has been dated as early as the 4th century,Шаблон:Citation needed though this is debated.Шаблон:Citation needed The first certain examples of the shift are from the Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Circa, oldest extant manuscript after 650), a Latin text of the Lombards. Lombard personal names show Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA, having Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang for Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang. According to most scholars, the pre-Old High German runic inscriptions of Шаблон:Circa show no convincing trace of the consonant shift.Шаблон:Citation needed

This shift probably began in the 8th or 9th century, after the first and second phases ceased to be productive; otherwise the resulting voiceless plosives would have shifted further to fricatives and affricates.

In words in which an Indo-European voiceless plosive became voiced as a result of Verner's law, phase three of the High German shift returns this to its original value (*t > d > t):

PIE *Шаблон:PIE
> early Proto-Germanic Шаблон:Lang (t > /θ/ by the first Germanic consonant shift)
> late Proto-Germanic Шаблон:Lang (/θ/ > /ð/ by Verner's law)[7]
> West-Germanic *Шаблон:Lang (/ð/ > d by West Germanic sound change)
> Old High German Шаблон:Lang (d > t by the second Germanic consonant shift)

Examples:

OE Шаблон:Lang : OHG Шаблон:Lang (English do, Dutch Шаблон:Lang, Low German Шаблон:Lang, German Шаблон:Lang)
OE Шаблон:Lang : OHG Шаблон:Lang (English mother, Dutch Шаблон:Lang, Low German Шаблон:Lang, German Шаблон:Lang)
OE Шаблон:Lang : OHG Шаблон:Lang (English red, Dutch Шаблон:Lang, Low German Шаблон:Lang, German Шаблон:Lang)[8]
OE Шаблон:Lang : OHG Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang (English bid, Dutch Шаблон:Lang, Low German Шаблон:Lang, German Шаблон:Lang, Bavarian Шаблон:Lang)

The combination Шаблон:Lang was shifted to Шаблон:Lang only in some varieties of OHG. Written OHG normally has shifted Шаблон:Lang (e.g. Шаблон:Lang "to bind"), but in Middle High German and modern standard German the unshifted pronunciation Шаблон:IPA prevails (cf. Шаблон:Lang). (Although in OHG both Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang "to find" are encountered, these represent earlier forms Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang, respectively; note the corresponding alternation in Old Saxon Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang. In this case, Шаблон:Lang corresponds to original Proto-Germanic Шаблон:Lang while *Шаблон:Lang is a later, specifically West Germanic, form, created by analogy with the Verner's law alternant Шаблон:Lang, as in Proto-Germanic Шаблон:Lang "they found", Шаблон:Lang "found".)

Noteworthy exceptions are modern Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang, for which Middle High German preferred Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang. (As all of these three words end in Шаблон:Lang, the modern unvoiced pronunciation might be caused by analogy with Шаблон:Lang, whose Шаблон:Lang stems from original Germanic Шаблон:IPA unshifted before Шаблон:IPA.) In other cases, modern Шаблон:Lang is due to the later loss of a vowel (e.g. Шаблон:Lang from OHG Шаблон:Lang) or borrowing (e.g. Шаблон:Lang from Low German).

It is possible that pizza is an early Italian borrowing of OHG (Bavarian dialect) Шаблон:Lang, a shifted variant of Шаблон:Lang (German Шаблон:Lang, 'bite, snack').[9]

Other changes

Other consonant changes on the way from West Germanic to Old High German are included under the heading "High German consonant shift" by some scholars who see the term as a description of the whole context, but are excluded by others who use it to describe the neatness of the threefold chain shift. Although it is possible to see Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPAslink > Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA as a similar group of three, both the chronology and the differing phonetic conditions under which these changes occur speak against such a grouping.

Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA (phase 4)

What is sometimes known as the fourth phase shifted the dental fricatives to plosives. This shift occurred late enough that unshifted forms appear in the earliest Old High German texts, and thus it can be dated to the 9th or 10th century. This shift spread much further north than the others, eventually reaching all continental West Germanic languages (hence excluding only English). It is therefore not uniquely High German; it is nonetheless often grouped together with the other shifts, as it did spread from the same area. The shift took several centuries to spread north, appearing in Dutch only during the 12th century, and in Frisian and Low German not for another century or two after that.

In early Old High German, as in Old Dutch and Old Saxon, the voiceless and voiced dental fricatives Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA stood in allophonic relationship (as did Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA), with Шаблон:IPA in final position and Шаблон:IPA used initially and medially. The sound Шаблон:IPA then became Шаблон:IPA, while Шаблон:IPA became Шаблон:IPA. In Old Frisian, the voiceless fricatives were only voiced medially, and remained voiceless initially except in some pronouns and determiners, much as in Old and Modern English. Thus, modern Frisian varieties have Шаблон:IPA word-initially in most words, and Шаблон:IPA medially.

early OHG Шаблон:Lang > classical OHG Шаблон:Lang (English that, Icelandic Шаблон:Lang : Dutch Шаблон:Lang, German Шаблон:Lang, West Frisian Шаблон:Lang)
early OHG Шаблон:Lang > classical OHG Шаблон:Lang (English think : Dutch Шаблон:Lang, German Шаблон:Lang, West Frisian Шаблон:Lang)
early OHG Шаблон:Lang > classical OHG Шаблон:Lang (English thane : Dutch Шаблон:Lang, German Шаблон:Lang "warrior", West Frisian Шаблон:Lang)
early OHG Шаблон:Lang > classical OHG Шаблон:Lang (English thirsty : Dutch Шаблон:Lang, German Шаблон:Lang, West Frisian Шаблон:Lang, Swedish Шаблон:Lang)
early OHG Шаблон:Lang/Шаблон:Lang > classical OHG Шаблон:Lang (English brother, Icelandic Шаблон:Lang : Dutch Шаблон:Lang, German Шаблон:Lang, West Frisian Шаблон:Lang)
early OHG Шаблон:Lang > classical OHG Шаблон:Lang (English mouth, Old Norse Шаблон:Lang : Dutch Шаблон:Lang, German Шаблон:Lang)
early OHG Шаблон:Lang/Шаблон:Lang > classical OHG Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang (English thou, Icelandic Шаблон:Lang : Low German Шаблон:Lang, German Шаблон:Lang, West Frisian Шаблон:Lang)

In dialects affected by phase 4 but not by the dental variety of phase 3 (Central German, Low German, and Dutch), two Germanic phonemes merged: þ becomes d, but original Germanic d remains unchanged:

German Low German English
original Шаблон:IPA ( > Шаблон:IPA in German and Low German) Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang death
original Шаблон:IPA ( > Шаблон:IPA in German) Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang dead

One consequence of this is that there is no dental variety of Шаблон:Lang in Middle Dutch.

A peculiar development took place in stems which had the onsets Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang in OHG. They were merged in Middle High German (MHG) Шаблон:Lang and subsequently shifted to Шаблон:Lang in Upper German and Шаблон:Lang in Central German. Modern German has Шаблон:Lang in Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, but Шаблон:Lang in Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang. The stems with the Upper German development appear to have undergone the High German consonant shift several times, e.g. Шаблон:Lang ("to force") < MHG Шаблон:Lang < OHG Шаблон:Lang < Germanic Шаблон:Lang.

In 1955, Otto Höfler[10] suggested that a change analogous to the fourth phase of the High German consonant shift may have taken place in Gothic (East Germanic) as early as the 3rd century AD, and he hypothesised that it may have spread from Gothic to High German as a result of the Visigothic migrations westward (c. 375–500 AD). This has not found wide acceptance; the modern consensus is that Höfler misinterpreted some sound substitutions of Romanic languages as Germanic, and that East Germanic shows no sign of the second consonant shift.

Most dialects of Norwegian and Swedish show a shift much like the one in Frisian, with Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA. This shift reached Swedish only around the 16th century, as the Gustav Vasa Bible of 1541 still shows the dental fricatives (spelled Шаблон:Angbr). This shift may be part of the same development as in the West Germanic languages, or it may have occurred independently. Danish—geographically between West Germanic and Swedish/Norwegian areas—must have experienced this shift first, before it could have spread further north. But Danish does not form a dialect continuum with the West Germanic languages, and the shift occurred only word-initially in it, while it retains Шаблон:IPA medially. On the other hand, Danish exhibits widespread lenition phenomena, including shifts from plosives to fricatives and further to approximants word-medially, so it is conceivable that these changes counteracted the earlier hardening of the dental fricatives that had reached Danish from the south (thus initially Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA, followed by lenition Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA), but only after these changes had propagated further north to the remaining Scandinavian dialects.

/β/ > /b/

West Germanic *ƀ (presumably pronounced Шаблон:IPAblink), which was an allophone of Шаблон:IPA used in medial position, shifted to (Upper German) Old High German Шаблон:IPA between two vowels, and also after Шаблон:IPA. Unshifted languages retained a fricative, which became Шаблон:IPA between vowels and Шаблон:IPA in coda position.

OE Шаблон:Lang : OHG Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang (obs. English †lief, Dutch Шаблон:Lang, Low German Шаблон:Lang : German Шаблон:Lang)
OE Шаблон:Lang : MHG Шаблон:Lang (English haven, Dutch Шаблон:Lang, Low German Шаблон:Lang; for German Шаблон:Lang, see below)
OE Шаблон:Lang : OHG Шаблон:Lang (English half, Dutch Шаблон:Lang, Low German Шаблон:Lang : German Шаблон:Lang)
OE Шаблон:Lang : OHG Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang (English liver, Dutch Шаблон:Lang, Low German Шаблон:Lang : German Шаблон:Lang)
OE Шаблон:Lang : OHG Шаблон:Lang (English self, Dutch Шаблон:Lang, Low German Шаблон:Lang : German Шаблон:Lang)
OE Шаблон:Lang : OHG Шаблон:Lang (English salve, Dutch Шаблон:Lang, Low German Шаблон:Lang : German Шаблон:Lang)

In strong verbs such as German Шаблон:Lang 'heave' and Шаблон:Lang 'give', the shift contributed to eliminating the Шаблон:IPA forms in German, but a full account of these verbs is complicated by the effects of Шаблон:Lang by which Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA appear in alternation in different parts of the same verb in the early forms of the languages. In the case of weak verbs such as Шаблон:Lang 'have' (compare Dutch Шаблон:Lang) and Шаблон:Lang 'live' (Dutch Шаблон:Lang), the consonant differences have an unrelated origin, being a result of the West Germanic gemination and a subsequent process of levelling.

This shift also is only partly completed in Central German, with Ripuarian and Moselle Franconian retaining a fricative pronunciation. For example: Colognian Шаблон:Lang, Luxembourgish Шаблон:Lang, meaning "he lives".

Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA

The Proto-Germanic voiced dental fricative Шаблон:IPA, which was an allophone of Шаблон:IPA in certain positions, became a plosive Шаблон:IPA in all positions throughout the West Germanic languages. Thus, it affected High German, Low German, Dutch, Frisian and Old English alike. It did not spread to Old Norse, which retained the original fricative. Because of its much wider spread, it must have occurred very early, during Northwest Germanic times, perhaps around the 2nd century.

English has partially reversed this shift through the change Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA, for example in father, mother, gather and together. In dialects with th-stopping, Шаблон:IPA either disappears and merges with Шаблон:IPA or becomes a dental plosive Шаблон:IPAblink that contrasts with the alveolar Шаблон:IPA.

In phase 3 of the High German consonant shift, this Шаблон:IPA was shifted to Шаблон:IPA, as described above.

Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA

The West Germanic voiced velar fricative Шаблон:IPAblink shifted to Шаблон:IPA in Upper German dialects of Old High German in all positions. This change is believed to be early and complete by the 8th century at the latest. Since the existence of a Шаблон:IPA was necessary for the south German shift Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA, this must at least predate phase 3 of the core High German consonant shift.

The same change occurred independently in Anglo-Frisian (c. 10th century for Old English, as suggested by changing patterns of alliteration), except when preceding or following a front vowel where it had earlier undergone Anglo-Frisian palatalisation and ended up as Шаблон:IPA. Dutch has retained the original Шаблон:IPA (now devoiced to Шаблон:IPA in northern accents).

Dutch Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA : German Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, West Frisian Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, English good Шаблон:IPAc-en
Dutch Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA : German Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA : West Frisian Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, English yesterday Шаблон:IPAc-en,

The shift is only partly complete in Central German. Most Central German dialects have fricative pronunciation for Шаблон:Angbr between vowels (Шаблон:IPA) and in coda position (Шаблон:IPA). Ripuarian has Шаблон:IPA word-initially, e.g. Colognian Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA "good".

In standard German, fricative Шаблон:Angbr is found in coda position in unstressed Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA "blessed", but inflected Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA). One will still very frequently hear fricative Шаблон:Angbr in coda position in other cases as well in standard German as pronounced by people from northern and central Germany. For example, Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang are often pronounced Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA (the latter with a short vowel as in Dutch Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA vs. prescriptive standard German Шаблон:IPA). Compare German phonology. This pronunciation reaches as far south as Franconia, thus into Upper German areas.

Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Anchor

High German experienced the shift Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA in all positions, and Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA before another consonant in initial position (original Шаблон:IPA may in fact have been apical Шаблон:IPA, as OHG and MHG distinguish it from the reflex Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA, spelled ⟨z⟩ or ⟨ȥ⟩ and presumed to be laminal Шаблон:IPA):

German Шаблон:Lang, script
German Шаблон:Lang, flask
German Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:IPA), spin
German Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:IPA), street
German Шаблон:Lang, sleep
German Шаблон:Lang, smith
German Шаблон:Lang, snow
German Шаблон:Lang, swan

Likewise Шаблон:IPA usually became Шаблон:IPA:

German Шаблон:Lang, perch or bass (Dutch Шаблон:Lang)
German Шаблон:Lang, cherry (Dutch Шаблон:Lang)

In the cluster Шаблон:Lang, this change was not reflected in spelling and the modern standard pronunciation, which is partly based on Low German accents, uses Шаблон:IPA. Therefore, Шаблон:Lang is Шаблон:IPA in Modern Standard German, though virtually all High German dialects have Шаблон:IPA in this word.

The Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA shift occurred in most West Germanic dialects but notably not in Dutch, which instead had Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA, while West Frisian retains Шаблон:IPA in all positions. The two other changes did not reach any further than Limburgish (eastern dialects only) and some southern dialects of Low German:

East Limburgish Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA
Dutch Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA (although note that Dutch Шаблон:IPA is usually apical).

Terminal devoicing

Other changes include a general tendency towards terminal devoicing in German and Dutch, and to a far more limited extent in English. Thus, in German and Dutch, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA (German), Шаблон:IPA (Dutch) at the end of a word are pronounced identically to Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA (German), Шаблон:IPA (Dutch). The Шаблон:Angle bracket in German Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-de (day) is pronounced as Шаблон:Angle bracket in English tack, not as Шаблон:Angle bracket in English tag. But this change is not High German in origin, but generally thought to have originated in Frankish,Шаблон:Citation needed as the earliest evidence for the change appears in Old Dutch texts at a time when there was still no sign of devoicing at all in Old High German or Old Saxon.

Nevertheless, the original voiced consonants are usually represented in modern German and Dutch spelling. This is because related inflected forms, such as the plural Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-de, have the voiced form, since here the plosive is not terminal. As a result of these inflected forms, native speakers remain aware of the underlying voiced phoneme, and spell accordingly. In Middle High German, these sounds were spelled differently: singular Шаблон:Lang, plural Шаблон:Lang.

Chronology

Since the High German consonant shift took place before the beginning of writing of Old High German in the 8th century, the dating of the various phases is uncertain. The estimates quoted here are mostly taken from the Шаблон:Lang (p. 63). Different estimates appear elsewhere, as in Waterman, who asserts that the first three phases occurred fairly close together and were complete in Alemannic territory by 600, taking another two or three centuries to spread north.

Sometimes historical constellations help us; for example, the fact that Attila is called Шаблон:Lang in German proves that the second phase must have been productive after the Hunnish invasion of the 5th century. The fact that many Latin loan-words are shifted in German (e.g., Latin Шаблон:Lang > German Шаблон:Lang), while others are not (e.g., Latin Шаблон:Lang > German Шаблон:Lang) allows us to date the sound changes before or after the likely period of borrowing. But the most useful source of chronological data is German words cited in Latin texts of the late classical and early medieval period.

Precise dating would in any case be difficult, since each shift may have begun with one word or a group of words in the speech of one locality, and gradually extended by lexical diffusion to all words with the same phonological pattern, and then over a longer period of time spread to wider geographical areas.

But relative chronology can easily be established by the observation that, for example, t > tz must precede d > t, which in turn must precede þ > d; otherwise words with an original þ could have undergone all three shifts and ended up as tz. By contrast, as the form Шаблон:Lang for "give" is attested in Old Bavarian, showing both Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPAslink > Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA, it follows that Шаблон:IPAslink > Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA must predate phase 3.

Alternative chronologies have been proposed. According to a theory by the controversial German linguist Theo Vennemann, the consonant shift occurred much earlier and was already completed in the early 1st century BC.[11] On this basis, he subdivides the Germanic languages into High Germanic and Low Germanic. Few other linguists share this view.

Geographical distribution

Dialects and isoglosses of the Rhenish fan
(Arranged from north to south: dialects in dark fields, isoglosses in light fields)[12]
Isogloss North South
North Low Franconian / Low Saxon
Uerdingen line (Uerdingen) Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
South Low Franconian
Benrath line
(Boundary: Low German — Central German)
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Ripuarian Franconian (Aachen, Cologne, Bonn)

(State border NRWRP) (Шаблон:Lang)
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Northern Moselle Franconian (Luxemburgish, Trier)
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Southern Moselle Franconian (Шаблон:Lang)
Bacharach line (Bacharach)
(Шаблон:Lang)
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Rhenish Franconian (Шаблон:Lang, Frankfurt)
Speyer line (Speyer)
(Boundary: Central German — Upper German)
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Upper German
Файл:Rheinischer faecher.png
The Rhenish fan:
1 North Low Franconian,
2 South Low Franconian,
3 Ripuarian Franconian,
4 & 5 Moselle Franconian,
6 Rhenish Franconian

Roughly, the changes resulting from phase 1 affected Upper and Central German, as did the dental element of phase 2 (t- > z-). The other elements of phase 2 and all of phase 3 impacted only Upper German, while those changes from phase 4 affected the entire German and Dutch-speaking region (the West Germanic dialect continuum). The generally accepted boundary between Central and Low German, the Шаблон:LangШаблон:Lang line, is sometimes called the Benrath line, as it passes through the Düsseldorf suburb of Benrath, while the main boundary between Central and Upper German, the Шаблон:LangШаблон:Lang line can be called the Speyer line, as it passes near the town of Speyer, 200 kilometers farther south.

A precise description of the geographical extent of the changes is far more complex. Not only do the individual sound shifts within a phase vary in their distribution (phase 3, for example, partly affects the whole of Upper German and partly only the southernmost dialects within Upper German), but there are even slight variations from word to word in the distribution of the same consonant shift. For example, the Шаблон:LangШаблон:Lang line lies further north than the Шаблон:LangШаблон:Lang line in western Germany, coincides with it in central Germany, and lies further south at its eastern end, although both demonstrate the same shift /k/ > /x/.

Rhenish fan

Шаблон:Main The subdivision of West Central German into a series of dialects, according to the differing extent of the phase 1 shifts, is particularly pronounced. It is known as the Rhenish fan (Шаблон:Lang-de, Шаблон:Lang-nl) because on the map of dialect boundaries, the lines form a fan shape.[13] Here, no fewer than eight isoglosses run roughly West to East and partially merge into a simpler system of boundaries in East Central German. The table on the right lists the isoglosses (bold) and the main resulting dialects (italics), arranged from north to south.

Lombardic

Some of the consonant shifts resulting from the second and third phases appear also to be observable in Lombardic, the early mediaeval Germanic language of Italy, which is preserved in runic fragments of the late 6th and early 7th centuries. But the Lombardic records are not sufficient to allow a complete taxonomy of the language. It is therefore uncertain whether the language experienced the full shift or merely sporadic reflexes, but b > p is clearly attested. This may mean that the shift began in Italy, or that it spread southward as well as northward. Ernst Schwarz and others have suggested that the shift occurred in German as a result of contacts with Lombardic. If, in fact, there is a relationship here, the evidence of Lombardic would force us to conclude that the third phase must have begun by the late 6th century, rather earlier than most estimates, but this would not necessarily require that it had spread to German so early.

If, as some scholars believe, Lombardic was an East Germanic language and not part of the German language dialect continuum, it is possible that parallel shifts took place independently in German and Lombardic. But extant words in Lombardic show clear relations to the Bavarian language. Therefore, Betz and others prefer to treat Lombardic as an Old High German variety. There were close connections between Lombards and Proto-Bavarians. For example, the Lombards settled in Tullnerfeld, about Шаблон:Convert west of Vienna, until 568, but it is evident that not all Lombards went to Italy after that time; the rest seem to have become part of the then newly formed Bavarian groups.

According to Jonas of Bobbio (before 650) in Lombardy, when Columbanus came to the Alemanni at Lake Constance shortly after 600, he made Шаблон:Lang ("barrels", English cup, German Шаблон:Lang) burst. This shows that in the time of Columban the shift from p to f had occurred neither in Alemannic nor in Lombardic. But the Шаблон:Lang (643; surviving manuscript after 650) attests the forms Шаблон:Lang ('throwing a corpse out of the grave', German Шаблон:Wikt-lang and Шаблон:Wikt-lang), Шаблон:Lang ('a horse', OHG Шаблон:Lang, 'throws the rider off'), and many similar shifted examples. So it is best to see the consonant shift as a common Lombardic–Bavarian–Alemannic shift between 620 and 640, when these tribes had plenty of contact.

Sample texts

As an example of the effects of the shift one may compare the following texts from the later Middle Ages, on the left a Middle Low German citation from the Шаблон:Lang (1220), which does not show the shift, and on the right the equivalent text from the Middle High German Шаблон:Interlanguage link (1274), which shows the shifted consonants; both are standard legal texts of the period.

Шаблон:Lang (II,45,3) Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang)
De man is ok vormunde sines wives,
to hant alse se eme getruwet is.
Dat wif is ok des mannes notinne
to hant alse se in sin bedde trit,
na des mannes dode is se ledich van des mannes rechte.
Der man ist auch vormunt sînes wîbes
zehant als si im getriuwet ist.
Daz wîp ist auch des mannes genôzinne
zehant als si an sîn bette trit
nâch des mannes rechte.
First lines identical: "The man is also guardian of his wife / as soon as she is married to him. / The wife is also the man's companion / as soon as she goes to his bed".

Last line of the Шаблон:Lang is "After the man's death, she is free of the man's rights"; that of the Шаблон:Lang "according to a man's rights".

Unshifted forms in modern Standard German Шаблон:Anchor

At least as far as the core group of changes is concerned, the High German consonant shift is an example of an exceptionless sound change and was frequently cited as such by the Neogrammarians. Modern standard German is a compromise form between East Central German and northern Upper German, mainly based on the former but with the consonant pattern of the latter. But individual words from all German dialects and varieties have found their way into the standard. When a German word contains unshifted consonants, it is often a loanword from either Low German or, less often, Central German. Either the shifted form has become obsolete, as in:

Шаблон:Lang "harbor", from Low German (15th century), replacing Middle High German Шаблон:Lang;
Шаблон:Lang "lease", from West Central German, replacing Middle High German Шаблон:Lang;

or the two forms are retained as doublets, as in:

Шаблон:Lang "coat of arms", from Low German, alongside High German Шаблон:Lang "weapon";
Шаблон:Lang "to fight", from either Low German or Central German, alongside High German Шаблон:Lang "to knock".

Other examples of unshifted words from Low German include:

Шаблон:Lang "oat" (vs. Swiss, Austrian Шаблон:Lang); Шаблон:Lang "lip" (vs. Шаблон:Lang "animal lip"); Шаблон:Lang "water level"; Шаблон:Lang "pimple"

But the majority of unshifted words in German are loaned from Latin, Romance, English or Slavic:

Шаблон:Lang "pair, couple" (← Medieval Latin Шаблон:Lang), Шаблон:Lang "whip" (← Old Sorbian/Czech Шаблон:Lang).

Other ostensible irregularities in the sound shift, which we may notice in modern Standard German, are usually clarified by checking the etymology of an individual word. Possible reasons include the following:

See also

References

Шаблон:Reflist

Sources

Шаблон:Germanic languages Шаблон:Authority control

  1. See also Fausto Cercignani, The Consonants of German: Synchrony and Diachrony, Milano, Cisalpino, 1979.
  2. Scholars who restrict the term "High German Consonant Shift" to the core group include Braune/Reiffenstein, Chambers & Wilkie, von Kienle, Wright (1907), and Voyles (1992). Those who include other changes as part of the shift or who treat them as connected with it include Penzl (1975), dtv-Atlas, Keller, Moser/Wellmann/Wolf, and Wells.
  3. Scholars who make a two-fold analysis include Bach, Braune/Reiffenstein, Eggers, Gerh. Wolff, Keller, Moser/Wellmann/Wolf, Penzl (1971 & 1975), Russ, Sonderegger (1979), von Kienle, Voyles (1992), and Wright (1907). Scholars who distinguish three phases include Chambers & Wilkie, dtv-Atlas, Waterman, and Wells.
  4. See the definition of "high" in the Oxford English Dictionary (Concise Edition): "... situated far above ground, sealevel, etc; upper, inland, as ... High German".
  5. Schwerdt (2000) has argued that the name 'High German consonant shift' is misleading and perhaps even inappropriate, as it does not adequately reflect the areal discrepancies of the individual changes undergone by the affected West Germanic dialects.
  6. The cognates mean "trustworthy","faithful", not "correct","truthful". Although, English true can mean "faithful" as well in some instances, like in a phrase such as "he stayed true to her".
  7. Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology, TF Hoad (Ed)
  8. As a general rule, Low German, Dutch, and German have all undergone final-obstruent devoicing so that the modern reflexes are all pronounced with final /t/ regardless of spelling.
  9. Manlio & Michele Cortelazzo, L'etimologico minore 2003, p. 929f.
  10. Otto Höfler, Die zweite Lautverschiebung bei Ostgermanen und Westgermanen, Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur 77 (Tübingen 1955)
  11. Vennemann, Theo (1994): "Dating the division between High and Low Germanic. A summary of arguments". In: Mørck, E./Swan, T./Jansen, O.J. (eds.): Language change and language structure. Older Germanic languages in a comparative perspective. Berlin/New York: 271–303.
  12. The table of isoglosses is adapted from Шаблон:Lang on the German Wikipedia.
  13. Rheinischer Fächer – Karte des Landschaftsverband Rheinland Шаблон:Webarchive


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