Английская Википедия:Higher-dimensional gamma matrices

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Redirect In mathematical physics, higher-dimensional gamma matrices generalize to arbitrary dimension the four-dimensional Gamma matrices of Dirac, which are a mainstay of relativistic quantum mechanics. They are utilized in relativistically invariant wave equations for fermions (such as spinors) in arbitrary space-time dimensions, notably in string theory and supergravity. The Weyl–Brauer matrices provide an explicit construction of higher-dimensional gamma matrices for Weyl spinors. Gamma matrices also appear in generic settings in Riemannian geometry, particularly when a spin structure can be defined.

Introduction

Consider a space-time of dimension Шаблон:Mvar with the flat Minkowski metric,

<math> \eta = \|\eta_{a b}\| = \text{diag}(+1, \dots, +1, -1, \dots, -1) ~,</math>

with <math>p</math> positive entries, <math>q</math> negative entries, <math>p + q = d</math> and Шаблон:Math. Set Шаблон:Math. The standard Dirac matrices correspond to taking Шаблон:Math and Шаблон:Math or Шаблон:Math.

In higher (and lower) dimensions, one may define a group, the gamma group, behaving in the same fashion as the Dirac matrices.[1] More precisely, if one selects a basis <math>\{e_a\}</math> for the (complexified) Clifford algebra <math>\mathrm{Cl}_{p,q}(\mathbb{C}) \cong \mathrm{Cl}^\mathbb{C}(p, q)</math>, then the gamma group generated by <math>\{\Gamma_a\}</math> is isomorphic to the multiplicative subgroup generated by the basis elements <math>e_a</math> (ignoring the additive aspect of the Clifford algebra).

By convention, the gamma group is realized as a collection of matrices, the gamma matrices, although the group definition does not require this. In particular, many important properties, including the C, P and T symmetries do not require a specific matrix representation, and one obtains a clearer definition of chirality in this way.[1] Several matrix representations are possible, some given below, and others in the article on the Weyl–Brauer matrices. In the matrix representation, the spinors are <math>N</math>-dimensional, with the gamma matrices acting on the spinors. A detailed construction of spinors is given in the article on Clifford algebra. Jost provides a standard reference for spinors in the general setting of Riemmannian geometry.[2]

Gamma group

Most of the properties of the gamma matrices can be captured by a group, the gamma group. This group can be defined without reference to the real numbers, the complex numbers, or even any direct appeal to the Clifford algebra.[1] The matrix representations of this group then provide a concrete realization that can be used to specify the action of the gamma matrices on spinors. For <math>(p,q)=(1,3)</math> dimensions, the matrix products behave just as the conventional Dirac matrices. The Pauli group is a representation of the gamma group for <math>(p,q)=(3,0)</math> although the Pauli group has more relationships (is less free); see the note about the chiral element below for an example. The quaternions provide a representation for <math>(p,q)=(0,3).</math>

The presentation of the gamma group <math>G = G_{p,q}</math> is as follows.

  • A neutral element is denoted as <math>I</math>.
  • The element <math>i</math> with <math>i^4 = I</math> is a stand-in for the complex number <math>i</math>; it commutes with all other elements,
  • There is a collection of generators <math>\Gamma_a</math> indexed by <math>a = 0, \ldots, p - 1</math> with <math>\Gamma_a^2 = I~,</math>
  • The remaining generators <math>\Gamma_a,\ a = p, \ldots, p + q - 1</math> obey <math>\Gamma_a^2 = i^2~,</math>
  • The anticommutator is defined as <math>\Gamma_a \Gamma_b = i^2 \Gamma_b \Gamma_a</math> for <math>a \ne b ~.</math>

These generators completely define the gamma group. It can be shown that, for all <math>x \in G</math> that <math>x^4 = I</math> and so <math>x^{-1} = x^3~.</math> Every element <math>x \in G</math> can be uniquely written as a product of a finite number of generators placed in canonical order as

<math>x = i^n \Gamma_a\Gamma_b \cdots \Gamma_c</math>

with the indexes in ascending order

<math>a < b < \cdots < c</math>

and <math>0 \le n \le 3.</math> The gamma group is finite, and has at most <math>2^{p+q+2}</math> elements in it.

The gamma group is a 2-group but not a regular p-group. The commutator subgroup (derived subgroup) is <math>[G, G] = \left\{I, i^2\right\} ~,</math> therefore it is not a powerful p-group. In general, 2-groups have a large number of involutions; the gamma group does likewise. Three particular ones are singled out below, as they have a specific interpretation in the context of Clifford algebras, in the context of the representations of the gamma group (where transposition and Hermitian conjugation literally correspond to those actions on matrices), and in physics, where the "main involution" <math>\alpha</math> corresponds to a combined P-symmetry and T-symmetry.

Transposition

Given elements <math>\Gamma_i</math> of the generating set of the gamma group, the transposition or reversal is given by

<math>(\Gamma_a\Gamma_b\cdots\Gamma_c)^\textsf{t} = \Gamma_c\cdots\Gamma_b\Gamma_a</math>

If there are <math>k</math> elements <math>\Gamma_i</math> all distinct, then

<math>(\Gamma_a\Gamma_b\cdots\Gamma_c)^\textsf{t} = \left(i^2\right)^{\frac{1}{2}k(k-1)}\Gamma_a\Gamma_b\cdots \Gamma_c</math>

Hermitian conjugation

Another automorphism of the gamma group is given by conjugation, defined on the generators as

<math>\Gamma_a^\dagger = \begin{cases}
    \Gamma_a & \mbox{for } 0 \le a < p \\
 i^2\Gamma_a & \mbox{for } p \le a < p + q \\

\end{cases}</math>

supplemented with <math>i^\dagger = i^3</math> and <math>I^\dagger = I.</math> For general elements in the group, one takes the transpose: <math>(ab)^\dagger = b^\dagger a^\dagger~.</math> From the properties of transposition, it follows that, for all elements <math>x\in G</math> that either <math>xx^\dagger = x^\dagger x = I</math> or that <math>xx^\dagger = x^\dagger x = i^2 ~,</math> that is, all elements are either Hermitian or unitary.

If one interprets the <math>p</math> dimensions as being "time-like", and the <math>q</math> dimensions as being "space-like", then this corresponds to P-symmetry in physics. That this is the "correct" identification follows from the conventional Dirac matrices, where <math>\gamma_0</math> is associated with the time-like direction, and the <math>\gamma_i</math> the spatial directions, with the "conventional" (+−−−) metric. Other metric and representational choices suggest other interpretations.

Main involution

The main involution is the map that "flips" the generators: <math>\alpha(\Gamma_a) = i^2\Gamma_a</math> but leaves <math>i</math> alone: <math>\alpha(i) = i ~.</math> This map corresponds to the combined P-symmetry and T-symmetry in physics; all directions are reversed.

Chiral element

Define the chiral element <math>\omega \equiv \Gamma_\mathrm{chir}</math> as

<math>\omega = \Gamma_\mathrm{chir} = \Gamma_0\Gamma_1\cdots\Gamma_{d-1}</math>

where <math>d = p + q</math>. The chiral element commutes with the generators as

<math>\Gamma_a\omega = \left(i^2\right)^{d-1}\omega \Gamma_a</math>

It squares to

<math>\omega^2 = \left(i^2\right)^{q+\frac{1}{2}d(d-1)}</math>

For the Dirac matrices, the chiral element corresponds to <math>\gamma_5 ~,</math> thus its name, as it plays an important role in distinguishing the chirality of spinors.

For the Pauli group, the chiral element is <math>\sigma_1\sigma_2\sigma_3 = i</math> whereas for the gamma group <math>G_{3,0}</math>, one cannot deduce any such relationship for <math>\Gamma_1\Gamma_2\Gamma_3</math> other than that it squares to <math>i^2~.</math> This is an example of where a representation may have more identities the represented group. For the quaternions, which provide a representation of <math>G_{0,3}</math> the chiral element is <math>ijk = i^2~.</math>

Charge conjugation

None of the above automorphisms (transpose, conjugation, main involution) are inner automorphisms; that is they cannot be represented in the form <math>CxC^{-1}</math> for some existing element <math>C</math> in the gamma group, as presented above. Charge conjugation requires extending the gamma group with two new elements; by convention, these are

<math>C_{+}\Gamma_a C_{+}^{-1} = \Gamma_a^\textsf{t}</math>

and

<math>C_{-}\Gamma_a C_{-}^{-1} = i^2\Gamma_a^\textsf{t}</math>

The above relations are not sufficient to define a group; <math>C^2</math> and other products are undetermined.

Matrix representation

The gamma group has a matrix representation given by complex <math>N \times N</math> matrices with <math>N = 2^{\left\lfloor \frac{1}{2}d\right\rfloor}</math> and <math>d = p + q</math> and <math>\lfloor x \rfloor</math> the floor function, the largest integer less than <math>x.</math> The group presentation for the matrices can be written compactly in terms of the anticommutator relation from the Clifford algebra Шаблон:Math

<math>\{ \Gamma_a ~,~ \Gamma_b \} = \Gamma_a\Gamma_b + \Gamma_b\Gamma_a = 2 \eta_{a b} I_N ~,</math>

where the matrix Шаблон:Math is the identity matrix in Шаблон:Mvar dimensions. Transposition and Hermitian conjugation correspond to their usual meaning on matrices.

Charge conjugation

For the remainder of this article,it is assumed that <math>p = 1</math> and so <math>q = d - 1</math>. That is, the Clifford algebra Шаблон:Math is assumed.Шаблон:Efn In this case, the gamma matrices have the following property under Hermitian conjugation,

<math>\begin{align}
 \Gamma_0^\dagger &= +\Gamma_0 ~, &
 \Gamma_a^\dagger &= -\Gamma_a ~(a = 1, \dots, d - 1) ~.

\end{align}</math>

Transposition will be denoted with a minor change of notation, by mapping <math>\Gamma_a^\textsf{t} \mapsto \Gamma_a^\textsf{T}</math> where the element on the left is the abstract group element, and the one on the right is the literal matrix transpose.

As before, the generators Шаблон:Math all generate the same group (the generated groups are all isomorphic; the operations are still involutions). However, since the Шаблон:Math are now matrices, it becomes plausible to ask whether there is a matrix that can act as a similarity transformation that embodies the automorphisms. In general, such a matrix can be found. By convention, there are two of interest; in the physics literature, both referred to as charge conjugation matrices. Explicitly, these are

<math>\begin{align}
 C_{(+)} \Gamma_a C_{(+)}^{-1} &= + \Gamma_a^\textsf{T} \\
 C_{(-)} \Gamma_a C_{(-)}^{-1} &= - \Gamma_a^\textsf{T} ~.

\end{align}</math>

They can be constructed as real matrices in various dimensions, as the following table shows. In even dimension both <math>C_\pm</math> exist, in odd dimension just one.

d <math> C^*_{(+)} = C_{(+)} </math> <math> C^*_{(-)} = C_{(-)} </math>
<math> 2 </math> <math> C^\textsf{T}_{(+)} = C_{(+)};EducationBot (обсуждение)C^2_{(+)} = 1 </math> <math> C^\textsf{T}_{(-)} = -C_{(-)};EducationBot (обсуждение)C^2_{(-)} = -1 </math>
<math> 3 </math> <math> C^\textsf{T}_{(-)} = -C_{(-)};EducationBot (обсуждение)C^2_{(-)} = -1 </math>
<math> 4 </math> <math> C^\textsf{T}_{(+)} = -C_{(+)};EducationBot (обсуждение)C^2_{(+)} = -1 </math> <math> C^\textsf{T}_{(-)} = -C_{(-)};EducationBot (обсуждение)C^2_{(-)} = -1 </math>
<math> 5 </math> <math> C^\textsf{T}_{(+)} = -C_{(+)};EducationBot (обсуждение)C^2_{(+)} = -1 </math>
<math> 6 </math> <math> C^\textsf{T}_{(+)} = -C_{(+)};EducationBot (обсуждение)C^2_{(+)} = -1 </math> <math> C^\textsf{T}_{(-)} = C_{(-)};EducationBot (обсуждение)C^2_{(-)} = 1 </math>
<math> 7 </math> <math> C^\textsf{T}_{(-)} = C_{(-)};EducationBot (обсуждение)C^2_{(-)} = 1 </math>
<math> 8 </math> <math> C^\textsf{T}_{(+)} = C_{(+)};EducationBot (обсуждение)C^2_{(+)} = 1 </math> <math> C^\textsf{T}_{(-)} = C_{(-)};EducationBot (обсуждение)C^2_{(-)} = 1 </math>
<math> 9 </math> <math> C^\textsf{T}_{(+)} = C_{(+)};EducationBot (обсуждение)C^2_{(+)} = 1 </math>
<math> 10 </math> <math> C^\textsf{T}_{(+)} = C_{(+)};EducationBot (обсуждение)C^2_{(+)} = 1 </math> <math> C^\textsf{T}_{(-)} = -C_{(-)};EducationBot (обсуждение)C^2_{(-)} = -1 </math>
<math> 11 </math> <math> C^\textsf{T}_{(-)} = -C_{(-)};EducationBot (обсуждение)C^2_{(-)} = -1 </math>

Note that <math> C^*_{(\pm)} = C_{(\pm)} </math> is a basis choice.

Symmetry properties

We denote a product of gamma matrices by

<math>\Gamma_{abc \dotsm} = \Gamma_a \cdot \Gamma_b \cdot \Gamma_c \cdots {}</math>

and note that the anti-commutation property allows us to simplify any such sequence to one in which the indices are distinct and increasing. Since distinct <math>\Gamma_a</math> anti-commute this motivates the introduction of an anti-symmetric "average". We introduce the anti-symmetrised products of distinct Шаблон:Mvar-tuples from 0, ..., Шаблон:Mvar − 1:

<math>\Gamma_{a_1 \dots a_n} = \frac{1}{n!} \sum_{\pi \in S_n} \epsilon(\pi) \Gamma_{a_{\pi(1)}} \cdots \Gamma_{a_{\pi(n)}} ~,</math>

where Шаблон:Mvar runs over all the permutations of Шаблон:Mvar symbols, and Шаблон:Mvar is the alternating character. There are 2d such products, but only Шаблон:Mvar2 are independent, spanning the space of Шаблон:Mvar×Шаблон:Mvar matrices.

Typically, Шаблон:Math provide the (bi)spinor representation of the Шаблон:Math generators of the higher-dimensional Lorentz group, Шаблон:Math, generalizing the 6 matrices σμν of the spin representation of the Lorentz group in four dimensions.

For even Шаблон:Mvar, one may further define the hermitian chiral matrix

<math> \Gamma_\text{chir} = i^{\frac{d}{2}-1} \Gamma_0 \Gamma_1 \dotsm \Gamma_{d-1} ~,</math>

such that Шаблон:Math and Шаблон:Math. (In odd dimensions, such a matrix would commute with all Шаблон:Mvaras and would thus be proportional to the identity, so it is not considered.)

A Шаблон:Mvar matrix is called symmetric if

<math>( C \Gamma_{a_1 \dotsm a_n} )^\textsf{T} = +( C \Gamma_{a_1 \dotsm a_n} ) ~;</math>

otherwise, for a − sign, it is called antisymmetric.

In the previous expression, Шаблон:Mvar can be either <math> C_{(+)} </math> or <math> C_{(-)} </math>. In odd dimension, there is no ambiguity, but in even dimension it is better to choose whichever one of <math> C_{(+)} </math> or <math> C_{(-)} </math> allows for Majorana spinors. In Шаблон:Mvar = 6, there is no such criterion and therefore we consider both.

d C Symmetric Antisymmetric
<math> 3 </math> <math> C_{(-)} </math> <math> \gamma_{a} </math> <math> I_2 </math>
<math> 4 </math> <math> C_{(-)} </math> <math> \gamma_{a} ~,~ \gamma_{a_1 a_2} </math> <math> I_4 ~,~ \gamma_\text{chir} ~,~ \gamma_\text{chir} \gamma_a </math>
<math> 5 </math> <math> C_{(+)} </math> <math> \Gamma_{a_1 a_2} </math> <math> I_4 ~,~ \Gamma_a </math>
<math> 6 </math> <math> C_{(-)} </math> <math> I_8 ~,~ \Gamma_\text{chir} \Gamma_{a_1 a_2} ~,~ \Gamma_{a_1 a_2 a_3} </math> <math> \Gamma_a ~,~ \Gamma_\text{chir}~,~ \Gamma_\text{chir} \Gamma_a ~,~ \Gamma_{a_1 a_2}</math>
<math> 7 </math> <math> C_{(-)} </math> <math> I_8 ~,~ \Gamma_{a_1 a_2 a_3} </math> <math> \Gamma_a ~,~ \Gamma_{a_1 a_2}</math>
<math> 8 </math> <math> C_{(+)} </math> <math> I_{16} ~,~ \Gamma_{a} ~,~ \Gamma_\text{chir} ~,~ \Gamma_\text{chir}\Gamma_{a_1 a_2 a_3} ~,~ \Gamma_{a_1 \dots a_4} </math> <math> \Gamma_\text{chir} \Gamma_a ~,~ \Gamma_{a_1 a_2} ~,~ \Gamma_\text{chir} \Gamma_{a_1 a_2} ~,~ \Gamma_{a_1 a_2 a_3} </math>
<math> 9 </math> <math> C_{(+)} </math> <math> I_{16} ~,~ \Gamma_{a} ~,~ \Gamma_{a_1 \dotsm a_4} ~,~ \Gamma_{a_1 \dotsm a_5} </math> <math> \Gamma_{a_1 a_2} ~,~ \Gamma_{a_1 a_2 a_3}</math>
<math> 10 </math> <math> C_{(-)} </math> <math> \Gamma_{a} ~,~ \Gamma_\text{chir} ~,~ \Gamma_\text{chir} \Gamma_a ~,~ \Gamma_{a_1 a_2}

~,~ \Gamma_\text{chir} \Gamma_{a_1 \dotsm a_4} ~,~ \Gamma_{a_1 \dotsm a_5}</math>

<math> I_{32} ~,~ \Gamma_\text{chir} \Gamma_{a_1 a_2} ~,~ \Gamma_{a_1 a_2 a_3}

~,~ \Gamma_{a_1 \dotsm a_4} ~,~ \Gamma_\text{chir} \Gamma_{a_1 a_2 a_3} </math>

<math> 11 </math> <math> C_{(-)} </math> <math> \Gamma_a ~,~ \Gamma_{a_1 a_2} ~,~ \Gamma_{a_1 \dotsm a_5} </math> <math> I_{32} ~,~ \Gamma_{a_1 a_2 a_3} ~,~ \Gamma_{a_1 \dotsm a_4}</math>

Identities

The proof of the trace identities for gamma matrices hold for all even dimension. One therefore only needs to remember the 4D case and then change the overall factor of 4 to <math>\operatorname{tr}(I_N)</math>. For other identities (the ones that involve a contraction), explicit functions of <math>d</math> will appear. Шаблон:Ordered list Even when the number of physical dimensions is four, these more general identities are ubiquitous in loop calculations due to dimensional regularization.

Example of an explicit construction in the chiral basis

The Шаблон:Mvar matrices can be constructed recursively, first in all even dimensions, Шаблон:Mvar = 2Шаблон:Mvar, and thence in odd ones, 2Шаблон:Mvar + 1.

d = 2

Using the Pauli matrices, take

<math>\begin{align}
 \gamma_0 &= \sigma_1, & \gamma_1 &= -i \sigma_2

\end{align}</math>

and one may easily check that the charge conjugation matrices are

<math>\begin{align}
 C_{(+)} =   \sigma_1 = C_{(+)}^* = s_{(2,+)} C_{(+)}^\textsf{T} &= s_{(2,+)} C_{(+)}^{-1} & s_{(2,+)} &= +1 \\
 C_{(-)} = i \sigma_2 = C_{(-)}^* = s_{(2,-)} C_{(-)}^\textsf{T} &= s_{(2,-)} C_{(-)}^{-1} & s_{(2,-)} &= -1~.

\end{align}</math>

One may finally define the hermitian chiral Шаблон:Mvarchir to be

<math>\gamma_\text{chir} = \gamma_0 \gamma_1 = \sigma_3 = \gamma_\text{chir}^\dagger ~.</math>

Generic even d = 2k

One may now construct the Шаблон:Math, matrices and the charge conjugations Шаблон:Mvar(±) in Шаблон:Mvar + 2 dimensions, starting from the Шаблон:Math , (Шаблон:Math), and Шаблон:Mvar(±) matrices in Шаблон:Mvar dimensions.

Explicitly,

<math>\begin{align}
  \Gamma_{a'} &= \gamma_{a'} \otimes \sigma_3 EducationBot (обсуждение) \left(a' = 0, \dots, d - 1\right)~, &
   \Gamma_{d} &= I \otimes (i \sigma_1) ~, &
 \Gamma_{d+1} &= I \otimes (i \sigma_2) ~.

\end{align}</math>

One may then construct the charge conjugation matrices,

<math>\begin{align}
 C_{(+)} &= c_{(-)} \otimes \sigma_1 ~, &
 C_{(-)} &= c_{(+)} \otimes (i \sigma_2) ~,

\end{align}</math>

with the following properties,

<math>\begin{align}
 C_{(+)} = C_{(+)}^* = s_{(d+2,+)} C_{(+)}^\textsf{T} &= s_{(d+2,+)} C_{(+)}^{-1} & s_{(d+2,+)} &=  s_{(d,-)} \\
 C_{(-)} = C_{(-)}^* = s_{(d+2,-)} C_{(-)}^\textsf{T} &= s_{(d+2,-)} C_{(-)}^{-1} & s_{(d+2,-)} &= -s_{(d,+)} ~.

\end{align}</math>

Starting from the sign values for Шаблон:Mvar = 2, Шаблон:Mvar(2,+) = +1 and Шаблон:Mvar(2,−) = −1, one may fix all subsequent signs Шаблон:Math(d,±) which have periodicity 8; explicitly, one finds

<math> d = 8 k </math> <math> d = 8 k + 2 </math> <math> d = 8 k + 4 </math> <math> d = 8 k + 6 </math>
<math> s_{(d,+)} </math> +1 +1 −1 −1
<math> s_{(d,-)} </math> +1 −1 −1 +1

Again, one may define the hermitian chiral matrix in Шаблон:Mvar+2 dimensions as

<math>\begin{align}
 \Gamma_\text{chir} &= \alpha_{d+2} \Gamma_0 \Gamma_1 \dotsm \Gamma_{d+1} = \gamma_\text{chir} \otimes \sigma_3~, &
           \alpha_d &= i^{\frac{1}{2}d-1} ~,

\end{align}</math>

which is diagonal by construction and transforms under charge conjugation as

<math>\begin{align}
 C_{(\pm)} \Gamma_\text{chir} C_{(\pm)}^{-1} &= \beta_{d+2} \Gamma_\text{chir}^\textsf{T}~, &
 \beta_d &= (-)^{\frac{1}{2}d(d-1)} ~.

\end{align}</math>

It is thus evident that Шаблон:Math = 0.

Generic odd d = 2k + 1

Consider the previous construction for Шаблон:Mvar − 1 (which is even) and simply take all Шаблон:Math matrices, to which append its Шаблон:Math. (The Шаблон:Mvar is required in order to yield an antihermitian matrix, and extend into the spacelike metric).

Finally, compute the charge conjugation matrix: choose between <math> C_{(+)} </math> and <math> C_{(-)} </math>, in such a way that Шаблон:Math transforms as all the other Шаблон:Math matrices. Explicitly, require

<math> C_{(s)} \Gamma_\text{chir} C_{(s)}^{-1} = \beta_{d} \Gamma_\text{chir}^\textsf{T} = s \Gamma_\text{chir}^\textsf{T} ~.</math>

As the dimension Шаблон:Mvar ranges, patterns typically repeat themselves with period 8. (cf. the Clifford algebra clock.)

See also

Notes

Шаблон:Notelist

References

Шаблон:Reflist

General reading

Партнерские ресурсы
Криптовалюты
Магазины
Хостинг
Разное

  1. ↑ 1,0 1,1 1,2 Шаблон:Cite journal
  2. ↑ Jurgen Jost, (2002) "Riemannian Geometry and Geometric Analysis (3rd edition)", Springer. See Chapter 1, section 1.8.
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