Английская Википедия:Hindenburg Programme
The Hindenburg Programme of August 1916 is the name given to the armaments and economic policy begun in late 1916 by the Third Шаблон:Lang (OHL, headquarters of the German General Staff), Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg and General Erich Ludendorff. The two were appointed after the sacking of General Erich von Falkenhayn on 28 August 1916 and intended to double German industrial production, to greatly increase the output of munitions and weapons.
Background
Third OHL
On 29 August 1916, Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg and General Erich Ludendorff were appointed as heads of Шаблон:Lang (OHL, German General Staff) of the German army, after the sacking of General Erich von Falkenhayn, who had commanded the armies of Germany since September 1914. The new commanders, who became known as the Third OHL, had spent two years in command of Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang, Supreme Commander of All German Forces in the East) on the German section of the Eastern Front. Hindenburg and Ludendorff had demanded reinforcements from Falkenhayn to fight a decisive campaign against Russia and intrigued against Falkenhayn over his refusals. Falkenhayn held that decisive military victory against Russia was impossible and that the Western Front was the decisive theatre of the war. Soon after taking over from Falkenhayn, Hindenburg and Ludendorff had no choice but to recognise the wisdom of the emphasis given by Falkenhayn to the Western Front, despite the crisis in the east caused by the Brusilov Offensive (4 June – 20 September) and the Romanian declaration of war on 28 August.Шаблон:Sfn
Prelude
Cambrai conference
On 8 September, Hindenburg and Ludendorff held a conference at Cambrai with the chiefs of staff of the armies of the Шаблон:Lang (army of the west) as part of a tour of inspection of the Western Front. Both men were dismayed at the nature of trench warfare that they found, in such contrast to the conditions on the Eastern Front and the dilapidated state of the Шаблон:Lang. The Battle of Verdun and the Battle of the Somme had been extraordinarily costly; on the Somme, Шаблон:Nowrap casualties had been suffered from 24 June to 28 August. The battle had required the use of Шаблон:Nowrap and by September, one division each day had to be withdrawn and replaced by a fresh one. The Chief of Staff of the new Шаблон:Lang (Army Group German Crown Prince) reported that conditions at Verdun were little better and that the recruit depots behind the army group front could supply only Шаблон:Nowrap of the casualty replacements needed. From July to August the Шаблон:Lang had fired the equivalent of Шаблон:Nowrap of field gun ammunition, against the receipt of only Шаблон:Nowrap Germany; the munitions shortage was worsening.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn
The 1st Army, on the north side of the Somme, reported on 28 August that
It was known in Germany that the British had introduced the Military Service Act 1916 (conscription) on 27 January 1916 and that despite the huge losses on the Somme, there would be no shortage of reinforcements. At the end of August, German military intelligence calculated that of the Шаблон:Nowrap divisions in France, Шаблон:Nowrap fresh. The French manpower situation was not as buoyant but by combing out rear areas and recruiting more troops from the colonies, the French could replace losses until the 1918 conscription class became available in the summer of 1917. Of the Шаблон:Nowrap divisions in France, Шаблон:Nowrap in reserve and another Шаблон:Nowrap could be obtained by swapping tired units for fresh ones on quiet parts of the front.Шаблон:Sfn
Ludendorff admitted privately to Шаблон:Lang (Lieutenant-General) Hermann von Kuhl, the Chief of Staff of Шаблон:Lang (Army Group Rupprecht of Bavaria) who wrote in his diary that
On 29 August, Hindenburg and Ludendorff reorganised the army groups on the Western Front, by incorporating all but the 4th Army in Flanders into the army group structure on the active part of the Western Front. The administrative reorganisation eased the distribution of men and equipment, yet made no difference to the lack of numbers and to the growing Franco-British superiority in weapons and ammunition. New divisions were needed and the manpower for them and replacements for the losses of 1916 had to be found. The superiority in manpower enjoyed by the Entente and its allies could not be surpassed but Hindenburg and Ludendorff drew on ideas from Шаблон:Lang (Lieutenant-Colonel) Max Bauer of the Operations Section at OHL, the supreme headquarters in Mézières, for a further industrial mobilisation, to equip the army for the Шаблон:Lang (battle of equipment/battle of attrition) being inflicted on it in France, which would only intensify in 1917.Шаблон:Sfn
Hindenburg Programme
Bureaucracy
Following the adoption of the programme, the main administrative novelty of the third OHL was the Шаблон:Lang (Supreme War Office), founded on 1 November 1916, with General Wilhelm Groener, a railway expert, as the head. The new body was intended to by-pass the War Ministry as well as create the structure of a command economy, with a militaristic organisation intended to facilitate management and a subordinate level of six departments organised along bureaucratic lines.Шаблон:Sfn
Army
Hindenburg and Ludendorff demanded domestic changes to complement their changes of strategy. German workers were to be subjected to a Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang Auxiliary Services Law) which from November 1916, made all Germans from Шаблон:Nowrap old subject to compulsory service.Шаблон:Sfn The new programme was intended to treble artillery and machine-gun output and double munitions and trench mortar production. Expansion of the German Army and output of war materials caused increased competition for manpower by the army and industry. In early 1916, the German Army had Шаблон:Nowrap in recruit depots and another Шаблон:Nowrap in March, when the 1897 class of conscripts was called up. The army was so flush with men that plans were made to demobilise older Шаблон:Lang classes and in the summer, Falkenhayn ordered the raising of another Шаблон:Nowrap for an army of Шаблон:Nowrap The costly battles at Verdun and the Somme had been much more demanding on German divisions and they had to be relieved after only a few days in the front line, lasting about 14 days on the Somme. A larger number of divisions might reduce the strain on the Шаблон:Lang and realise a surplus for offensives on other fronts. Hindenburg and Ludendorff ordered the creation of another 22 divisions, to have an army of 179 divisions by early 1917.Шаблон:Sfn
The men for the divisions created by Falkenhayn had come from reducing square divisions with four infantry regiments to triangular divisions with three, rather than a net increase in the number of men in the army. Troops for the extra divisions of the expansion ordered by Hindenburg and Ludendorff could be found by combing out rear-area units but most would have to be drawn from the pool of replacements, which had been depleted by the losses of 1916. Although new classes of conscripts would top up the pool of replacements, keeping units up to strength would become much more difficult once the pool had to maintain a larger number of divisions. By calling up the 1898 class of recruits early in November 1916, the pool was increased to Шаблон:Nowrap men in February 1917 but the larger army would become a wasting asset. Ernst von Wrisberg, Шаблон:Lang of the Шаблон:Lang (head of the Prussian Ministry of War section responsible for raising new units), had grave doubts about the wisdom of expanding the army but was over-ruled by Ludendorff.Шаблон:Sfn
Ammunition
The German Army had begun 1916 equally well provided for in artillery and ammunition, massing Шаблон:Nowrap field and Шаблон:Nowrap heavy artillery shells for the beginning of the Battle of Verdun. Four million rounds were fired in the first fortnight and the 5th Army needed about Шаблон:Nowrap trains a day to replace consumption. The Battle of the Somme further reduced the German reserve of ammunition and when the infantry was forced out of the front position, the need for Шаблон:Lang (defensive barrages), to compensate for the lack of obstacles, increased. Before the war and the Allied naval Blockade of Germany, nitrates for explosives manufacture had been imported from Chile. Production of propellants could continue only because of the industrialisation of the Haber process for the synthesis of nitrates from atmospheric nitrogen but this took time to achieve.Шаблон:Sfn Under Falkenhayn, the procurement of ammunition and artillery had been based on the output of propellants, since the manufacture of ammunition without sufficient propellants and explosive fillings was pointless. Hindenburg and Ludendorff wanted firepower to replace manpower and ignored the principle of matching means and ends.Шаблон:Sfn
Explosives
To meet existing demand and to feed new weapons, Hindenburg and Ludendorff wanted a big increase in propellant output to Шаблон:Cvt a month. In July 1916, the output target had been raised from Шаблон:Cvt which was expected to cover existing demand and the extra Шаблон:Cvt of output demanded by Hindenburg and Ludendorff could never match the doubling and trebling of artillery, machine-guns and trench mortars. The industrial mobilisation needed to fulfil the Hindenburg Programme increased demand for skilled workers, Шаблон:Lang (recalled from the army) or exempted from conscription. The number of Шаблон:Lang increased from Шаблон:Nowrap men, of whom Шаблон:Nowrap deemed Шаблон:Lang (kv, fit for front line service), at the end of 1916 to Шаблон:Nowrap men in October 1917 and more than two million by November, Шаблон:Nowrap being kv. The demands of the Hindenburg Programme exacerbated the manpower crisis and constraints on the availability of raw materials meant that targets were not met.Шаблон:Sfn
War economy
The Hindenburg Programme was provided with a legal basis in the Auxiliary Service Law, implemented on 6 December.Шаблон:Sfn The German Army returned Шаблон:Nowrap workers to the war economy and exempted Шаблон:Nowrap from conscription from September 1916 to July 1917.Шаблон:Sfn Steel production in February 1917 was Шаблон:Cvt short of expectations and explosives production was Шаблон:Cvt below the target, which added to the pressure on Ludendorff to retreat to the Hindenburg Line.Шаблон:Sfn Despite the shortfalls, by the summer of 1917, the Шаблон:Lang artillery park had increased from Шаблон:Nowrap Шаблон:Nowrap guns and from Шаблон:Nowrap Шаблон:Nowrap guns, many being newer models of superior performance. Machine-gun output enabled each division to have Шаблон:Nowrap and Шаблон:Nowrap machine-guns and for the number of Шаблон:Lang (MGA, machine-gun sharpshooter detachments) to be increased. The greater output was insufficient to equip the new divisions and existing divisions which still had two artillery brigades with two regiments each, lost a regiment and the brigade headquarters, leaving three regiments. Against the new scales of equipment, British divisions in early 1917 had Шаблон:Nowrap and Шаблон:Nowrap machine-guns and the French Шаблон:Nowrap and Шаблон:Nowrap machine-guns.Шаблон:Sfn
Slave labour
The imposition of compulsory labour for prisoners of war and deported Belgian and Polish workers began in August 1915. Three decrees of increasing severity were issued between 15 August 1915 and 13 May 1916. On 26 October 1916, 729 people who were unemployed or "work-shy" were picked up and by the time that deportations ceased on 10 February 1917, 115 deportation operations had taken place. The hope of OHL to obtain 20,000 workers per week was not realised and only 60,847 deportations were achieved. The army took the Belgians to camps where a deliberately harsh regime was imposed to coerce the victims into signing employment contracts under duress to make them "volunteers". Conditions in the camps were so poor that in a few months, 1,316 inmates died; despite the rigours, only 13,376 Belgians capitulated, the odious treatment meted out by the Germans creating anger and bitterness, rather than docility. The Pope condemned the deportations and neutral opinion, particularly in the United States, was more outraged than at any time since the Шаблон:Lang massacres of August 1914. Well-attended rallies were held in many cities and attempts by the US President, Woodrow Wilson, to mediate a peace deal with the combatants were a failure. US opinion became overwhelmingly pro-Entente over the winter of 1916–1917.Шаблон:Sfn
Aftermath
Analysis
Ludwig von Mises called the Hindenburg Programme a command economy.Шаблон:Sfn Enterprises "not important to the war economy" were closed to supply more workers.Шаблон:Sfn In 2014, Alexander Watson wrote that the Auxiliary Service Law was drastically revised in the Reichstag by Шаблон:Lang (SPD), Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang) and the Шаблон:Lang (FVP) deputies, to confound the attempt by the OHL to create a command economy at the expense of the working class. Extensive concessions to the workers were included in the law, with the establishment of a committee to supervise its implementation. Hindenburg later denounced the concessions as insufficient and "positively harmful"; industrialists, looking forward to a captive workforce to exploit, were aghast at being compelled to work with workers' committees and conciliation organisations. The purpose of the law, to deny workers' mobility was thwarted and with it went the possibility of a centralised organisation of manpower. The super-profits anticipated by employers were limited by the prospect of improved pay and conditions being recognised as a valid reason to change jobs. The attempt by the third OHL to reorganise the war economy through compulsion was a failure but the law was effective in substituting workers of lesser physical fitness for those capable of military service. Concessions to organised labour were valuable in retaining the co-operation of the unions during the unrest of 1917.Шаблон:Sfn
The German army had reached its peak of manpower in 1916 and the Hindenburg Programme had been intended to reduce the burden on the remaining men by substituting machines. In 1917, the Шаблон:Lang had managed to withstand the attacks of the French and the British, while offensive operations had been conducted on the eastern and southern fronts. The coalition against Germany increased its output of war materiel even more than the increase of the Hindenburg Programme, an industrial competition that Germany could not win; the programme worsened the labour shortage in Germany. The theoretical changes in German defensive tactics had greater effect than the increase in the size of the army and the output of weapons. British attacks in 1917 were much more competent than those of 1916 but German defensive methods were adapted to negate the effect of the maturing of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF). The Battle of the Somme (1 July – 18 November 1916) had cost the Шаблон:Lang about Шаблон:Nowrap and the Second Battle of the Aisne (16 April – 9 May 1917), the main part of the Nivelle Offensive, cost another Шаблон:Nowrap The Third Battle of Ypres (31 July – 10 November) added Шаблон:Nowrap casualties.Шаблон:Sfn
Casualties in the Third Battle of Ypres led to the average number of men in an infantry battalion falling from Шаблон:Nowrap and in October, congestion on the railway lines behind the 4th Army led to more shortages. The 4th Army had a ration strength of Шаблон:Nowrap and Шаблон:Nowrap which needed Шаблон:Nowrap of Шаблон:Nowrap each just for daily maintenance. The change to a defence based on firepower, using the extra weapons and munitions produced by the Hindenburg Programme, needed more trains to carry ammunition to the front. On 28 July, the 4th Army fired Шаблон:Nowrap trains' worth of ammunition, exceeding the record Шаблон:Nowrap on the Somme. On 9 October, the 4th Army was firing Шаблон:Nowrap worth per day, Шаблон:Nowrap shells being fired during the battle. The trains had to compete for space on the railways with food supplies and troop transports, which created severe difficulties for Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn Men, horses and fuel were taken from agricultural production for the army and munitions, which caused food shortages and food price inflation, leading to Germany coming to the verge of starvation at the close of 1918.Шаблон:Sfn
See also
- National Economic Council (est. 1880–1881) established by Otto von Bismarck
- Total war
- Military–industrial complex
Explanatory notes
Citations
References
Books
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
Journals
Further reading
External links
- Auxiliary Service Law 1916 (English text)
- A. Ritschl, The Pity of Peace: Germany’s Economy at War, 1914–1918 and beyond
- Английская Википедия
- Страницы с неработающими файловыми ссылками
- Economic history of Germany
- Economic history of World War I
- Economy of the German Empire
- German Empire in World War I
- Paul von Hindenburg
- Страницы, где используется шаблон "Навигационная таблица/Телепорт"
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- Википедия
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