Английская Википедия:Hindi
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:About Шаблон:Distinguish Шаблон:Pp-semi-indef Шаблон:Use Indian English Шаблон:Use dmy dates
Шаблон:Infobox language Шаблон:Constitutionally recognised languages in India Modern Standard Hindi (Hindi: Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Transliteration),[1] commonly referred to as Hindi (Hindi: Шаблон:Lang,Шаблон:Efn Шаблон:Transliteration), is an Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in North India, and serves as the lingua franca of the Hindi Belt region encompassing parts of northern, central, eastern, and western India. Hindi has been described as a standardised and Sanskritised register[2] of the Hindustani language, which itself is based primarily on the Khariboli dialect of Delhi and neighbouring areas of North India.[3][4][5] Hindi, written in the Devanagari script, is one of the two official languages of the Government of India, along with English.[6] It is an official language in nine states and three union territories and an additional official language in three other states.[7][8][9][10] Hindi is also one of the 22 scheduled languages of the Republic of India.[11]
Hindi is also spoken, to a lesser extent, in other parts of India (usually in a simplified or pidginised variety such as Bazaar Hindustani or Haflong Hindi).[7][8] Outside India, several other languages are recognised officially as "Hindi" but do not refer to the Standard Hindi language described here and instead descend from other nearby languages, such as Awadhi and Bhojpuri. Such languages include Fiji Hindi, which has an official status in Fiji,[12] and Caribbean Hindustani, which is spoken in Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, and Guyana.[13][14][15][16] Apart from the script and formal vocabulary, standard Hindi is mutually intelligible with standard Urdu, another recognised register of Hindustani as both share a common colloquial base.[17]
Hindi is the fourth most-spoken first language in the world, after Mandarin, Spanish and English.[18] If counted together with the mutually intelligible Urdu, it is the third most-spoken language in the world, after Mandarin and English.[19][20] According to reports of Ethnologue (2022, 25th edition) Hindi is the third most-spoken language in the world including first and second language speakers.[21]
Hindi is the fastest growing language of India, followed by Kashmiri in the second place, with Meitei (officially called Manipuri) as well as Gujarati, in the third place, and Bengali in the fourth place, according to the 2011 census of India.[22]
Terminology
The term Hindī originally was used to refer to inhabitants of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. It was borrowed from Classical Persian Шаблон:Lang Hindī (Iranian Persian pronunciation: Hendi), meaning "of or belonging to Hind (India)" (hence, "Indian").[23]
Another name Hindavī (Шаблон:Lang) or Hinduī (Шаблон:Lang) (from Шаблон:Lang-fa "of or belonging to the Hindu/Indian people") was often used in the past, for example by Amir Khusrau in his poetry.[24][25]
The terms "Hindi" and "Hindu" trace back to Old Persian which derived these names from the Sanskrit name Sindhu (Шаблон:Lang), referring to the Indus River. The Greek cognates of the same terms are "Indus" (for the river) and "India" (for the land of the river).[26][27]
The term Modern Standard Hindi is commonly used to specifically refer the modern literary Hindi language, as opposed to colloquial and regional varieties that are also referred to as Hindi in a wider sense.[28]
History
Middle Indo-Aryan to Hindi
Like other Indo-Aryan languages, Hindi is a direct descendant of an early form of Vedic Sanskrit, through Shauraseni Prakrit and Śauraseni Apabhraṃśa (from Sanskrit apabhraṃśa "corrupt"), which emerged in the 7th century CE.[29]
The sound changes that characterised the transition from Middle Indo-Aryan to Hindi are:[30]
- Compensatory lengthening of vowels preceding geminate consonants, sometimes with spontaneous nasalisation: Skt. hasta "hand" > Pkt. hattha > hāth
- Loss of all word-final vowels: rātri "night" > rattī > rāt
- Formation of nasalised long vowels from nasal consonants (-VNC- > -V̄̃C-): bandha "bond" > bā̃dh
- Loss of unaccented or unstressed short vowels (reflected in schwa deletion): susthira "firm" > sutthira > suthrā
- Collapsing of adjacent vowels (including separated by a hiatus: apara "other" > avara > aur
- Final -m to -ṽ: grāma "village" > gāma > gāṽ
- Intervocalic -ḍ- to -ṛ- or -l-: taḍāga "pond" > talāv, naḍa "reed" > nal.
- v > b: vivāha "marriage" > byāh
Hindustani
During the period of Delhi Sultanate, which covered most of today's north India, eastern Pakistan, southern Nepal and Bangladesh[31] and which resulted in the contact of Hindu and Muslim cultures, the Sanskrit and Prakrit base of Old Hindi became enriched with loanwords from Persian, evolving into the present form of Hindustani.[32][33][34][35][36][37] The Hindustani vernacular became an expression of Indian national unity during the Indian Independence movement,[38][39] and continues to be spoken as the common language of the people of the northern Indian subcontinent,[40] which is reflected in the Hindustani vocabulary of Bollywood films and songs.[41][42]
Standard Hindi is based on the Delhi dialect,[29] the vernacular of Delhi and the surrounding region, which came to replace earlier prestige languages such as Awadhi and Braj. It has come out from the extraction of Persian and Arabic words from the Persianised variant of the Hindustani language (Urdu),[43] which became the literary language from the 18th century. Earliest examples could be found as Prēm Sāgar by Lallu Lal, Batiyāl Pachīsī of Sadal Misra, and Rānī Kētakī Kī Kahānī of Insha Allah Khan which were published in Devanagari script during early of the 19th centuries.[44]
Major Hindustani writers continued to refer to their tongue as Hindi or Hindavi till the early of 19th century.[45]
As Mirza Galib says in his Qādir Nāma written in Nastaliq script:[46]
John Gilchrist was principally known for his study of the Hindustani language, which was adopted as the lingua franca of northern India (including what is now present-day Pakistan) by British colonists and indigenous people. He compiled and authored An English-Hindustani Dictionary, A Grammar of the Hindoostanee Language, The Oriental Linguist, and many more. His lexicon of Hindustani was published in the Perso-Arabic script, Nāgarī script, and in Roman transliteration.In the late 19th century, a movement to further develop Hindi as a standardised form of Hindustani separate from Urdu took form.[47] In 1881, Bihar accepted Hindi as its sole official language, replacing Urdu, and thus became the first state of India to adopt Hindi.[48] However, in 2014, Urdu was accorded second official language status in the state.[49]
Independent India
After independence, the Government of India instituted the following conventions:Шаблон:Original research inline
- Standardisation of grammar: In 1954, the Government of India set up a committee to prepare a grammar of Hindi; The committee's report was released in 1958 as A Basic Grammar of Modern Hindi.[50]
- Standardisation of the orthography, using the Devanagari script, by the Central Hindi Directorate of the Ministry of Education and Culture to bring about uniformity in writing, to improve the shape of some Devanagari characters, and introducing diacritics to express sounds from other languages.
On 14 September 1949, the Constituent Assembly of India adopted Hindi written in the Devanagari script as the official language of the Republic of India replacing Urdu's previous usage in the British Indian Empire.[51][52][53] To this end, several stalwarts rallied and lobbied pan-India in favour of Hindi, most notably Beohar Rajendra Simha along with Hazari Prasad Dwivedi, Kaka Kalelkar, Maithili Sharan Gupt and Seth Govind Das who even debated in Parliament on this issue. As such, on the 50th birthday of Beohar Rajendra Simha on 14 September 1949, the efforts came to fruition following the adoption of Hindi as the official language.[54] Now, it is celebrated as Hindi Day.[55]
Official status
India
Part XVII of the Indian Constitution deals with the official language of the Indian Commonwealth. Under Article 343, the official languages of the Union have been prescribed, which includes Hindi in Devanagari script and English:
(1) The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script. The form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals.[13]
(2) Notwithstanding anything in clause (1), for a period of fifteen years from the commencement of this Constitution, the English language shall continue to be used for all the official purposes of the Union for which it was being used immediately before such commencement: Provided that the President may, during the said period, by order authorise the use of the Hindi language in addition to the English language and of the Devanagari form of numerals in addition to the international form of Indian numerals for any of the official purposes of the Union.[56]
Article 351 of the Indian constitution states:
It shall be the duty of the Union to promote the spread of the Hindi language, to develop it so that it may serve as a medium of expression for all the elements of the composite culture of India and to secure its enrichment by assimilating without interfering with its genius, the forms, style and expressions used in Hindustani and in the other languages of India specified in the Eighth Schedule, and by drawing, wherever necessary or desirable, for its vocabulary, primarily on Sanskrit and secondarily on other languages.
It was envisioned that Hindi would become the sole working language of the Union Government by 1965 (per directives in Article 344 (2) and Article 351),[57] with state governments being free to function in the language of their own choice. However, widespread resistance to the imposition of Hindi on non-native speakers, especially in South India (such as those in Tamil Nadu) led to the passage of the Official Languages Act of 1963, which provided for the continued use of English indefinitely for all official purposes, although the constitutional directive for the Union Government to encourage the spread of Hindi was retained and has strongly influenced its policies.[58]
Article 344 (2b) stipulates that the official language commission shall be constituted every ten years to recommend steps for progressive use of Hindi language and imposing restrictions on the use of the English language by the union government. In practice, the official language commissions are constantly endeavouring to promote Hindi but not imposing restrictions on English in official use by the union government.
At the state level, Hindi is the official language of the following Indian states: Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand.[59] Hindi is an official language of Gujarat, along with Gujarati.[60] It acts as an additional official language of West Bengal in blocks and sub-divisions with more than 10% of the population speaking Hindi.[61][62][63] Similarly, Hindi is accorded the status of official language in the following Union Territories: Delhi, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu.
Although there is no specification of a national language in the constitution, it is a widely held belief that Hindi is the national language of India. This is often a source of friction and contentious debate.[64][65][66] In 2010, the Gujarat High Court clarified that Hindi is not the national language of India because the constitution does not mention it as such.[67][68] In 2021, in a Narcotics Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act case involving Gangam Sudhir Kumar Reddy, the Bombay High Court claimed Hindi is the national language while refusing Reddy bail, after he argued against his statutory rights being read in Hindi, despite being a native Telugu speaker. Reddy has filed a Special Leave Petition before the Supreme Court, challenging the Bombay High Court's observation, and contended that it failed to appreciate that Hindi is not the national language in India.[69][70][71]
In 2018, The Supreme Court has stayed a judgment of Madhya Pradesh High Court that held that the Hindi version of enactment will prevail if there is a variation in its Hindi version and English version. The prominence thus attached to English over Hindi in the judgement underlines the social significance of English over Hindi.[72]
Fiji
Outside Asia, the Awadhi language (an Eastern Hindi dialect) with influence from Bhojpuri, Bihari languages, Fijian and English is spoken in Fiji.[73][74] It is an official language in Fiji as per the 1997 Constitution of Fiji,[75] where it referred to it as "Hindustani"; however, in the 2013 Constitution of Fiji, it is simply called "Fiji Hindi" as the official language.[76] It is spoken by 380,000 people in Fiji.[73]
Nepal
Hindi is spoken as a first language by about 77,569 people in Nepal according to the 2011 Nepal census, and further by 1,225,950 people as a second language.[77] A Hindi proponent, Indian-born Paramananda Jha, was elected vice-president of Nepal. He took his oath of office in Hindi in July 2008. This created protests in the streets for 5 days; students burnt his effigies; there was general strike in 22 districts. Nepal Supreme Court ruled in 2009 that his oath in Hindi was invalid and he was kept "inactive" as vice-president. An "angry" Jha said, "I cannot be compelled to take the oath now in Nepali. I might rather take it in English."[78]
South Africa
Hindi is a protected language in South Africa. According to the Constitution of South Africa, the Pan South African Language Board must promote and ensure respect for Hindi along with other languages.[79] According to a doctoral dissertation by Rajend Mesthrie in 1985, although Hindi and other Indian languages have existed in South Africa for the last 125 years, there are no academic studies of any of them – of their use in South Africa, their evolution and current decline.[80]
United Arab Emirates
Hindi is adopted as the third official court language in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi.Шаблон:Efn[81] As a result of this status, the Indian workforce in UAE can file their complaints to the labour courts in the country in their own mother-tongue.[82]
Geographical distribution
Hindi is the lingua franca of northern India (which contains the Hindi Belt), as well as an official language of the Government of India, along with English.[56]
In Northeast India a pidgin known as Haflong Hindi has developed as a lingua franca for the people living in Haflong, Assam who speak other languages natively.[83] In Arunachal Pradesh, Hindi emerged as a lingua franca among locals who speak over 50 dialects natively.[84]
Hindi is quite easy to understand for many Pakistanis, who speak Urdu, which, like Hindi, is a standard register of the Hindustani language; additionally, Indian media are widely viewed in Pakistan.[85]
A sizeable population in Afghanistan, especially in Kabul, can also speak and understand Hindi-Urdu due to the popularity and influence of Bollywood films, songs and actors in the region.[86][87]
Hindi is also spoken by a large population of Madheshis (people having roots in north-India but having migrated to Nepal over hundreds of years) of Nepal. Apart from this, Hindi is spoken by the large Indian diaspora which hails from, or has its origin from the "Hindi Belt" of India. A substantially large North Indian diaspora lives in countries like the United States of America, the United Kingdom, the United Arab Emirates, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname, South Africa, Fiji and Mauritius, where it is natively spoken at home and among their own Hindustani-speaking communities. Outside India, Hindi speakers are 8 million in Nepal; 863,077 in the United States of America;[88][89] 450,170 in Mauritius; 380,000 in Fiji;[73] 250,292 in South Africa; 150,000 in Suriname;[90] 100,000 in Uganda; 45,800 in the United Kingdom;[91] 20,000 in New Zealand; 20,000 in Germany; 26,000 in Trinidad and Tobago;[90] 3,000 in Singapore.
Comparison with Standard Urdu
Шаблон:Main Linguistically, Hindi and Urdu are two registers of the same language and are mutually intelligible.[92] Both Hindi and Urdu share a core vocabulary of native Prakrit and Sanskrit-derived words.[17][93][94] However, Hindi is written in the Devanagari script and contains more Sanskrit-derived words than Urdu, whereas Urdu is written in the Perso-Arabic script and uses more Arabic and Persian loanwords compared to Hindi.[95] Because of this, as well as the fact that the two registers share an identical grammar,[5][17][93] a consensus of linguists consider them to be two standardised forms of the same language, Hindustani or Hindi-Urdu.[92][5][17][4] Hindi is the most commonly used scheduled language in India and is one of the two official languages of the union,[96] the other being English. Urdu is the national language and lingua franca of Pakistan and is one of 22 scheduled languages of India, also having official status in Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Delhi, Telangana,[97] Andhra Pradesh[98] and Bihar.[99]
Script
Шаблон:Main Hindi is written in the Devanagari script, an abugida. Devanagari consists of 11 vowels and 33 consonants and is written from left to right. Unlike Sanskrit, Devanagari is not entirely phonetic for Hindi, especially failing to mark schwa deletion in spoken Standard Hindi.[100]
Romanization
Шаблон:Main The Government of India uses Hunterian transliteration as its official system of writing Hindi in the Latin script. Various other systems also exist, such as IAST, ITRANS and ISO 15919.
Romanized Hindi, also called Hinglish, is the dominant form of Hindi online. In an analysis of YouTube comments, Palakodety et al., identified that 52% of comments were in Romanized Hindi, 46% in English, and 1% in Devanagari Hindi.[101]
Phonology
Vocabulary
Шаблон:Further Traditionally, Hindi words are divided into five principal categories according to their etymology:
- Tatsam (Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Translation) words: These are words which are spelled the same in Hindi as in Sanskrit (except for the absence of final case inflections).[109] They include words inherited from Sanskrit via Prakrit which have survived without modification (e.g. Hindi Шаблон:Lang nām / Sanskrit Шаблон:Lang nāma, "name",[110] as well as forms borrowed directly from Sanskrit in more modern times (e.g. Шаблон:Lang prārthanā, "prayer").[111] Pronunciation, however, conforms to Hindi norms and may differ from that of classical Sanskrit. Amongst nouns, the tatsam word could be the Sanskrit non-inflected word-stem, or it could be the nominative singular form in the Sanskrit nominal declension.
- Ardhatatsam (Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Translation) words: Such words are typically earlier loanwords from Sanskrit which have undergone sound changes subsequent to being borrowed. (e.g. Hindi Шаблон:Lang sūraj from Sanskrit Шаблон:Lang sūrya)
- Tadbhav (Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Translation) words: These are native Hindi words derived from Sanskrit after undergoing phonological rules (e.g. Sanskrit Шаблон:Lang karma, "deed" becomes Shauraseni Prakrit Шаблон:Lang kamma, and eventually Hindi Шаблон:Lang kām, "work") and are spelled differently from Sanskrit.[109]
- Deshaj (Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Translation) words: These are words that were not borrowings but do not derive from attested Indo-Aryan words either. Belonging to this category are onomatopoetic words or ones borrowed from local non-Indo-Aryan languages.
- Videshī (Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Translation) words: These include all loanwords from non-indigenous languages. The most frequent source languages in this category are Persian, Arabic, English and Portuguese. Examples are Шаблон:Lang qila "fort" from Persian, Шаблон:Lang kameṭī from English committee.
Hindi also makes extensive use of loan translation (calqueing) and occasionally phono-semantic matching of English.[112]
Prakrit
Hindi has naturally inherited a large portion of its vocabulary from Shauraseni Prakrit, in the form of tadbhava words. This process usually involves compensatory lengthening of vowels preceding consonant clusters in Prakrit, e.g. Sanskrit tīkṣṇa > Prakrit tikkha > Hindi tīkhā.
Sanskrit
Much of Standard Hindi's vocabulary is borrowed from Sanskrit as tatsam borrowings, especially in technical and academic fields. The formal Hindi standard, from which much of the Persian, Arabic and English vocabulary has been replaced by neologisms compounding tatsam words, is called Śuddh Hindi (pure Hindi), and is viewed as a more prestigious dialect over other more colloquial forms of Hindi.
Excessive use of tatsam words sometimes creates problems for native speakers. They may have Sanskrit consonant clusters which do not exist in Hindustani, causing difficulties in pronunciation.[113]
As a part of the process of Sanskritization, new words are coined using Sanskrit components to be used as replacements for supposedly foreign vocabulary. Usually these neologisms are calques of English words already adopted into spoken Hindi. Some terms such as dūrbhāṣ "telephone", literally "far-speech" and dūrdarśan "television", literally "far-sight" have even gained some currency in formal Hindi in the place of the English borrowings (ṭeli)fon and ṭīvī.[114]
Persian
Hindi also features significant Persian influence, standardised from spoken Hindustani.[95][28]Шаблон:Page needed Early borrowings, beginning in the mid-12th century, were specific to Islam (e.g. Muhammad, Islām) and so Persian was simply an intermediary for Arabic. Later, under the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire, Persian became the primary administrative language in the Hindi heartland. Persian borrowings reached a heyday in the 17th century, pervading all aspects of life. Even grammatical constructs, namely the izafat, were assimilated into Hindi.[115]
The status of Persian language then and thus its influence, is also visible in Hindi proverbs:
Шаблон:Verse transliteration-translation
The emergence of Modern Standard Hindi in the 19th century went along with the Sanskritisation of its vocabulary,[116] leading to a marginalisation of Persian vocabulary in Hindi, which continued after Partition when the Indian government co-opted the policy of Sanskritisation. However, many Persian words (e.g. bas "enough", khud "self") have remained entrenched in Standard Hindi, and a larger amount are still used in Urdu poetry written in the Devanagari script. Many words borrowed from Persian in turn were loanwords from Arabic (e.g. muśkil "difficult", havā "air", x(a)yāl "thought", kitāb "book").
| Perso-Arabic word | Hindi word | Gloss |
|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration | Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration | time |
| Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration | Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration | shirt |
| Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration | Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration | book |
| Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration | Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration | destiny |
| Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration | Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration | chair |
| Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration | Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration | calculation |
| Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration | Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration | law |
| Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration | Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration | news |
| Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration | Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration | world |
- क़ानून ultimately comes from the Greek κανών (kanōn).
- क़मीज़ ultimately comes from the Latin "camisia" pronunciation reinforced by Portuguese "camisa".
Portuguese
Many Hindustani words were derived from Portuguese due to interaction with colonists and missionaries:
| Hindi | Meaning | Portuguese |
|---|---|---|
| anānās (अनानास) | pineapple | ananás |
| pādrī (पाद्री) | priest | padre |
| bālṭī (बाल्टी) | bucket | balde |
| čābī (चाबी) | key | chave |
| girjā (गिर्जा) | church | igreja |
| almārī (अलमारी) | cupboard | armário |
| botal (बोतल) | bottle | botelha |
| aspatāl (अस्पताल) | hospital | Hospital |
| olandez (ओलंदेज़) | Dutch | holandês |
Media
Literature
Шаблон:Main Hindi literature is broadly divided into four prominent forms or styles, being Bhakti (devotional – Kabir, Raskhan); Śṛṇgār (beauty – Keshav, Bihari); Vīgāthā (epic); and Ādhunik (modern).
Medieval Hindi literature is marked by the influence of Bhakti movement and the composition of long, epic poems. It was primarily written in other varieties of Hindi, particularly Avadhi and Braj Bhasha, but to a degree also in Delhavi, the basis for Standard Hindi. During the British Raj, Hindustani became the prestige dialect.
Chandrakanta, written by Devaki Nandan Khatri in 1888, is considered the first authentic work of prose in modern Hindi.[118] The person who brought realism in Hindi prose literature was Munshi Premchand, who is considered the most revered figure in the world of Hindi fiction and progressive movement. Literary, or Sāhityik, Hindi was popularised by the writings of Swami Dayananda Saraswati, Bhartendu Harishchandra and others. The rising numbers of newspapers and magazines made Hindustani popular with educated people.Шаблон:Citation needed
The Dvivedī Yug ("Age of Dwivedi") in Hindi literature lasted from 1900 to 1918. It is named after Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, who played a major role in establishing Standard Hindi in poetry and broadening the acceptable subjects of Hindi poetry from the traditional ones of religion and romantic love.
In the 20th century, Hindi literature saw a romantic upsurge. This is known as Chāyāvād (shadow-ism) and the literary figures belonging to this school are known as Chāyāvādī. Jaishankar Prasad, Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala', Mahadevi Varma and Sumitranandan Pant, are the four major Chāyāvādī poets.
Uttar Ādhunik is the post-modernist period of Hindi literature, marked by a questioning of early trends that copied the West as well as the excessive ornamentation of the Chāyāvādī movement, and by a return to simple language and natural themes.
Internet
Hindi literature, music, and film have all been disseminated via the internet. In 2015, Google reported a 94% increase in Hindi-content consumption year-on-year, adding that 21% of users in India prefer content in Hindi.[119] Many Hindi newspapers also offer digital editions.
Sample text
Шаблон:See also The following is a sample text in High Hindi, of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (by the United Nations):
- Hindi in Devanagari Script
- Шаблон:Lang-hi
- Transliteration (ISO)
- Шаблон:Transliteration
- Transcription (IPA)
- Шаблон:IPA
- Gloss (word-to-word)
- Article 1 (one) – All humans birth from independent and dignity and rights in equal are. They logic and conscience from endowed are and they fraternity in the spirit of each other towards work should.
- Translation (grammatical)
- Article 1 – All humans are born independent and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with logic and conscience and they should work towards each other in the spirit of fraternity.
See also
- Hindi Belt
- Bengali Language Movement (Manbhum)
- Hindi Divas – the official day to celebrate Hindi as a language.
- Languages of India
- Languages with official status in India
- Indian states by most spoken scheduled languages
- List of English words of Hindi or Urdu origin
- List of Hindi channels in Europe (by type)
- List of languages by number of native speakers in India
- List of Sanskrit and Persian roots in Hindi
- World Hindi Secretariat
Notes
References
Bibliography
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Grierson, G. A. Linguistic Survey of India Vol I-XI, Calcutta, 1928, Шаблон:ISBN (searchable database).
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
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- Шаблон:Cite book
Dictionaries
- Шаблон:Citation.
- Шаблон:Citation
- Шаблон:Citation
- Academic Room Hindi Dictionary Mobile App developed in the Harvard Innovation Lab (iOS, Android and Blackberry)
- Шаблон:Citation
Further reading
- Шаблон:EI3
- Bhatia, Tej K. A History of the Hindi Grammatical Tradition. Leiden, Netherlands & New York, NY: E.J. Brill, 1987. Шаблон:ISBN
External links
Шаблон:InterWiki Шаблон:Wiktionary Шаблон:Wikivoyage
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- ↑ Singh, Rajendra, and Rama Kant Agnihotri. Hindi morphology: A word-based description. Vol. 9. Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1997.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 4,0 4,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 5,0 5,1 5,2 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 7,0 7,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 8,0 8,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 13,0 13,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ 17,0 17,1 17,2 17,3 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Mikael Parkvall, "Världens 100 största språk 2007" (The World's 100 Largest Languages in 2007), in Nationalencyklopedin. Asterisks mark the 2010 estimates Шаблон:Webarchive for the top dozen languages.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ —Шаблон:Cite news
—Шаблон:Cite news
—Шаблон:Cite news
—Шаблон:Cite magazine - ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite webШаблон:Dead link
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 28,0 28,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 29,0 29,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Masica, pp. 187–211
- ↑ Chapman, Graham. "Religious vs. regional determinism: India, Pakistan and Bangladesh as inheritors of empire." Shared space: Divided space. Essays on conflict and territorial organization (1990): 106–134.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Parthasarathy, Kumar, p.120
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 56,0 56,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite magazine
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 73,0 73,1 73,2 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег
<ref>; для сносокauto1не указан текст - ↑ Шаблон:Cite thesis
- ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег
<ref>; для сносокthehindu.comне указан текст - ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite magazine
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 90,0 90,1 Frawley, p. 481
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 92,0 92,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 93,0 93,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 95,0 95,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Citation
- ↑ 102,0 102,1 102,2 102,3 102,4 102,5 102,6 102,7 Hindi and Urdu contrast dental Шаблон:IPAblink and Шаблон:IPAblink with apical postalveolar Шаблон:IPAblink and Шаблон:IPAblink (as well as aspirated variants). Both sets sound like Шаблон:IPAc-en and Шаблон:IPAc-en to most English speakers although the dental [t] and [d] are used in place of the English Шаблон:IPAc-en and Шаблон:IPAc-en for some speakers with th-stopping.
- ↑ In a number of words, the Шаблон:Nq and/or Шаблон:Big is sometimes pronounced as Шаблон:IPAlink in Urdu, which is typically not represented or pronounced in Hindi, except when the Urdu variant is transliterated into Hindi.
- ↑ 104,0 104,1 104,2 104,3 104,4 Mainly phonemes of Urdu. Hindi speakers may replace [x], [z], [ʒ], [ɣ] and [q] with [kʰ], [dʒ], [dʒʱ], [g] and [k] respectively.
- ↑ 105,0 105,1 Mainly phonemes of Hindi. Urdu speakers usually replace [ɳ] and [ʂ] with [n] and [ʃ] respectively.
- ↑ 106,0 106,1 Шаблон:IPA can surface as a trill Шаблон:IPA in word-initial and syllable-final positions. Geminate Шаблон:IPA is always a trill.
- ↑ 107,0 107,1 Шаблон:IPA occurs as an allophone of Шаблон:IPA when /Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang/ is in an onglide position between an onset consonant and a following vowel while Шаблон:IPA, which may phonetically be Шаблон:IPAblink, occurs otherwise.
- ↑ Шаблон:IPA occurs as an allophone of Шаблон:IPA near an Шаблон:IPA that is surrounded on both sides by schwas. Usually, the second schwa becomes silent, which results in an Шаблон:IPA preceding an Шаблон:IPA.
- ↑ 109,0 109,1 Masica, p. 65
- ↑ Masica, p. 66
- ↑ Masica, p. 67
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ King, Christopher R. (1994). One Language, Two Scripts: The Hindi Movement in Nineteenth Century North India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
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