Английская Википедия:Hindustani etymology
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Use Indian English Шаблон:More citations needed Hindustani, also known as Hindi-Urdu, is the vernacular form of two standardized registers used as official languages in India and Pakistan, namely Hindi and Urdu. It comprises several closely related dialects in the northern, central and northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent but is mainly based on Khariboli of the Delhi region. As an Indo-Aryan language, Hindustani has a core base that traces back to Sanskrit but as a widely-spoken lingua franca, it has a large lexicon of loanwords,[1][2] acquired through centuries of foreign rule and ethnic diversity.
Standard Hindi derives much of its formal and technical vocabulary from Sanskrit while standard Urdu derives much of its formal and technical vocabulary from Persian and Arabic. Standard Hindi and Urdu are used primarily in public addresses and radio or TV news, while the everyday spoken language is one of the several varieties of Hindustani, whose vocabulary contains words drawn from Persian, Arabic, and Sanskrit. In addition, spoken Hindustani includes words from English and the Dravidian languages, as well as several others.
Hindustani developed over several centuries throughout much of the northern subcontinent including the areas that comprise modern-day India, Pakistan, and Nepal. In the same way that the core vocabulary of English evolved from Old English (Anglo-Saxon) but assimilated many words borrowed from French and other languages (whose pronunciations often changed naturally so as to become easier for speakers of English to pronounce), what may be called Hindustani can be said to have evolved from Sanskrit while borrowing many Persian and Arabic words over the years, and changing the pronunciations (and often even the meanings) of these words to make them easier for Hindustani speakers to pronounce. Many Persian words entered the Hindustani lexicon due to the influence of the Mughal rulers of north India, who followed a very Persianised culture and also spoke Persian. Many Arabic words entered Hindustani via Persian, which had previously been assimilated into the Persian language due to the influence of Arabs in the area. The dialect of Persian spoken by the Mughal ruling elite was known as 'Dari', which is the dialect of Persian spoken in modern-day Afghanistan. Therefore, Hindustani is the naturally developed common language of north India. This article will deal with the separate categories of Hindustani words and some of the common words found in the Hindustani language.
Categorization
Hindustani words, apart from loans, basically derive from two linguistic categories:
- Indo-Aryan (words classified by grammarians as tadbhava, or "inherited"): Sauraseni Prakrit and its apabhraṃśa, or "corrupted", vernaculars[3][4]
- Non-Indo-Aryan (words classified by grammarians as deśaja, or "indigenous"): Austroasiatic (Munda) languages, as well as Dravidian and Tibeto-Burman languages[3]
According to the traditional categorization in Hindi (also found in other Indo-Aryan languages except Urdu) the loanwords are classed as tatsam (Шаблон:Lang-hi "as it is, same as therein") for Sanskrit loans and vides͟hī (Шаблон:Lang-hi "foreign, non-native") for non-Sanskrit loans,[5] such as those from Persian or English, respectively contrasting with tadbhava and deśaja words.
The most common words in Hindustani are tadbhavas.Шаблон:Citation needed
Examples of derivations
Second person pronouns
In Hindustani, the pronoun āp (आप Шаблон:Nastaliq) "[one]self", originally used as a third person honorific plural, denotes respect or formality (politeness) and originates from Prakrit 𑀅𑀧𑁆𑀧𑀸 appā, which derived from Sanskrit ātman,[6] which refers to the higher self or level of consciousness.
The pronoun tū (तू Шаблон:Nastaliq) and its grammatically plural form tum (तुम Шаблон:Nastaliq) (also the second person honorific plural) denote informality, familiarity or intimacy and originate respectively from tuhuṃ and tumma from Prakrit 𑀢𑀼𑀁 tuṃ and its variant 𑀢𑀼𑀫𑀁 tumaṃ, which derived from Sanskrit tvam, nominative singular of युष्मद् yuṣmad (the base of the second person plural pronoun).[7][8] In modern usage, tū is widely used to display a range of attitudes depending on the context, from extreme informality (impoliteness) to extreme intimacy to outright disrespect and even extreme reverence. Usage of tū in most contexts is considered highly offensive in the formal register except when addressing God as a display of spiritual intimacy. This is very similar to the usage of "thou" in archaic English and many other Indo-European languages showing T–V distinction.
Present "be" verb
One of the most common words in Hindustani, the copula hai (है Шаблон:Nastaliq) and its plural form haiṉ (हैं Шаблон:Nastaliq) − present forms of honā (होना Шаблон:Nastaliq, meaning "to be" and originating from Prakrit 𑀪𑁄𑀤𑀺 bhodi derived from Sanskrit bhavati "to happen")[9] − rather originate from the following developments:[10]
- Sanskrit asti ("to be"; root as) evolves into Prakrit 𑀅𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀺 atthi, which further develops into ahi
- Ahi evolves into Old Hindi ahai (अहै Шаблон:Nastaliq; pronounced /əɦəɪ/, not /əɦɛː/ as in Hindustani)
Shortening of ahai occurred in Hindustani resulting in hai probably to fulfill the symmetry of the other grammatical forms of honā. Ahai can be found in some older works of Hindustani literature and its evidence can also be seen in other closely related Indo-Aryan languages such as Marathi (आहे āhe) or Sindhi (آهي āhe).
Perfective "go" verb
The verb jānā (जाना Шаблон:Nastaliq, "to go"), which originates from Prakrit 𑀚𑀸𑀤𑀺 jādi derived from Sanskrit yāti ("to move"; root yā),[10] however has its perfective form originating from another Prakrit word 𑀕𑀬 gaya derived from Sanskrit gata, past participle of gacchati ("to go"; root gam or gacch),[10] for example, in gayā (गया Шаблон:Nastaliq, "went, gone").
Some other words
The word ājā (आजा Шаблон:Nastaliq) has also been used in Northern India and Pakistan for "grandfather". It is indeed derived from arya meaning "sir" in this case. Шаблон:Citation needed Jain nuns are addressed either as Aryika or Ajji.
The word dādā (दादा Шаблон:Nastaliq) also has a similar meaning which varies by region. It is used in some regions for "father", in other regions for "older brother", or even for "grandfather" in other regions. This word is an amalgam of two sources:
- Sanskrit tāta used to address intimate persons which means either "sir" or "dear". Шаблон:Citation needed
- Tau meaning "father's older brother" is also derived from tāta. Шаблон:Citation needed
The word baṛā (बड़ा Шаблон:Nastaliq "older, bigger, greater") is derived from the Sanskrit vridhha through Prakrit vaḍḍha.
Desi words
The term Desi words is used to describe the component of the lexicon in Indo-Aryan languages which is non-Indo-Aryan in origin, but native to other language families of the Indian subcontinent. Examples of Desi words in Hindustani include:[11][12] loṭā (लोटा Шаблон:Nastaliq) "lota (water vessel)", kapās (कपास Шаблон:Nastaliq) "cotton", kauṛī (कौड़ी Шаблон:Nastaliq) "cowrie (shell money)", ṭhes (ठेस Шаблон:Nastaliq) "wound, injury", jhaṉḍā (झंडा Шаблон:Nastaliq) "flag", mukkā (मुक्का Шаблон:Nastaliq) "fist, punch", lakṛī (लकड़ी Шаблон:Nastaliq) "wood", ṭharrā (ठर्रा Шаблон:Nastaliq) "tharra (liquor)", čūhā (चूहा Шаблон:Nastaliq) "mouse, rat", čūlhā (चूल्हा Шаблон:Nastaliq) "stove, oven", pagṛī (पगड़ी Шаблон:Nastaliq) "turban", luṉgī (लुंगी Шаблон:Nastaliq) "lungi (sarong)", ghoṭālā (घोटाला Шаблон:Nastaliq) "scam", dāṉḍī (दांडी Шаблон:Nastaliq) "salt", jholā (झोला Шаблон:Nastaliq) "bag, satchel", ṭakkar (टक्कर Шаблон:Nastaliq) "crash, collision, confrontation", kākā (काका Шаблон:Nastaliq) "paternal uncle", uṭpaṭāṉg/ūṭpaṭāṉg (उटपटांग/ऊट-पटांग Шаблон:Nastaliq) "ludicrous", ḍabbā/ḍibbā (डब्बा/डिब्बा Шаблон:Nastaliq) "box, container" and jhuggī (झुग्गी Шаблон:Nastaliq) "hut"
Onomatopoeic words
Nouns: gaṛbaṛ (गड़बड़ Шаблон:Nastaliq) "disorder, disturbance", dhaṛām (धड़ाम Шаблон:Nastaliq) "thud", bakbak (बक-बक Шаблон:Nastaliq) "chatter/chitter-chatter", khusur pusar (खुसुर-पुसर Шаблон:Nastaliq) "whisper", jhilmil (झिलमिल Шаблон:Nastaliq) "shimmer", ṭhakṭhak (ठक-ठक Шаблон:Nastaliq) "knock knock", khaṭpaṭ (खटपट Шаблон:Nastaliq) "quarrel, disagreement"
Verbs: khaṭkhaṭānā (खटखटाना Шаблон:Nastaliq) "to knock", gaḍgaḍānā (गडगडाना Шаблон:Nastaliq) "to rumble, to fuss", jagmagānā (जगमगाना Шаблон:Nastaliq) "to shine/glitter", hinhinānā (हिनहिनाना Шаблон:Nastaliq) "to neigh", phusphusānā (फुसफुसाना Шаблон:Nastaliq) "to whisper"
Adjectives and Adverbs: čaṭpaṭ (चट-पट Шаблон:Nastaliq) "in a jiffy", tharthar (थर-थर Шаблон:Nastaliq) "with jerky motion (characteristic of shaking or trembling)", čaṭpaṭā (चटपटा Шаблон:Nastaliq) "dextrous, spicy", čipčipā (चिपचिपा Шаблон:Nastaliq) "sticky, slimy", čiṛčiṛā (चिड़चिड़ा Шаблон:Nastaliq) "irritable", gaṛbaṛiyā (गड़बड़िया Шаблон:Nastaliq) "chaotic, messy"
Loanwords
Due to the language's status as a lingua franca, Hindustani's vocabulary has a large inventory of loanwords, the largest number of which are adopted from Punjabi. Punjabi borrowings often bear sound changes from the parent Prakrit and Sanskrit vocabulary which did not occur in Hindustani, particularly the preservation of short vowels in initial syllables and the gemination of the following consonant. A certain amount of vocabulary from other South Asian languages, Persian, Arabic, and English has been loaned indirectly into Hindustani through Punjabi.[13] Other Indic languages which exist in a state of diglossia with Hindustani and are prone to mutual borrowing include Rajasthani, the Western Pahari languages, Haryanvi, Bhojpuri, Marathi, Nepali, and Gujarati. Besides these, common sources of loan words include those manually adopted from Classical Sanskrit, Classical Persian, Arabic, Chagatai Turkic, Portuguese and English, as well as Mandarin Chinese and French to a lesser extent.
Classical Sanskrit
Phonetic alterations
Many Classical Sanskrit words which were not learned borrowings underwent phonetic alterations. In the vernacular form, these include the merger of Sanskrit श (śa) and ष (ṣa), ण (ṇa) and न (na) as well as ऋ (r̥) and रि (ri). Other common alterations were s͟h [/ʃ/] (श Шаблон:Nastaliq) becoming s [/s/] (स Шаблон:Nastaliq), v/w [/ʋ/, /w/] (व Шаблон:Nastaliq) becoming b [/b/] (ब Шаблон:Nastaliq) and y [/j/] (य Шаблон:Nastaliq) becoming j [/dʒ/] (ज Шаблон:Nastaliq). Short vowels were also sometimes introduced to break up consonant clusters. Such words in Hindi (and other Indo-Aryan languages except Urdu) are called ardhatatsam (Шаблон:Lang-hi "semi-tatsam").
| Hindustani | Meaning | Sanskrit | Corresponding Persian loan | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ardhatatsam | tatsam | |||
| baras (बरस Шаблон:Nastaliq) | varṣ (Шаблон:Lang) | year | वर्ष (varṣa) | sāl (साल Шаблон:Nastaliq), san (सन Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| des (देस Шаблон:Nastaliq) | deśa (Шаблон:Lang) | country | देश (deśa) | mulk (मुल्क Шаблон:Nastaliq), vatan (वतन Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| bāsī (बासी Шаблон:Nastaliq) | vāsī (Шаблон:Lang) | inhabitant | वासी (vāsī) | bāśindā (बाशिन्दा Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| jantar (जन्तर Шаблон:Nastaliq) | yantra (Шаблон:Lang) | device | यन्त्र (yantra) | ālā (आला Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| rāt (रात Шаблон:Nastaliq) | rātri (Шаблон:Lang) | night | रात्रि (rātri) | śab (शब Шаблон:Nastaliq), lail (लैल Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| ādhā (आधा Шаблон:Nastaliq) | ardh (Шаблон:Lang) | half | अर्ध (ardha) | nisf (निस्फ़ Шаблон:Nastaliq), nem (नेम Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| sūraj (सूरज Шаблон:Nastaliq) | sūrya (Шаблон:Lang) | sun | सूर्य (sūrya) | śams (शम्स Шаблон:Nastaliq), āftāb (आफ़ताब Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| pūrā (पूरा Шаблон:Nastaliq) | pūrṇ (Шаблон:Lang) | complete | पूर्ण (pūrṇa) | tamām (तमाम Шаблон:Nastaliq), mukammal (मुकम्मल Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| ūncā/ūm̐cā (ऊंचा/ऊँचा Шаблон:Nastaliq) | ucc (Шаблон:Lang) | high/tall | उच्च (ucca) | buland (बुलन्द Шаблон:Nastaliq), aʾalā (आ'ला Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| kām (काम Шаблон:Nastaliq) | karm (Шаблон:Lang) | action | कर्म (karma) | kār (कार Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| nēm (नेम Шаблон:Nastaliq) | niyam (Шаблон:Lang) | rule | नियम (niyama) | qāʾedā (क़ाएदा Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| dakhin (दखिन Шаблон:Nastaliq) | dakṣiṇa (Шаблон:Lang) | south | दक्षिण (dakṣiṇa) | junūb (जुनूब Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| nain (नैन Шаблон:Nastaliq) | nayan (Шаблон:Lang) | eye | नयन (nayana) | caśm (चश्म Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| lāj (लाज Шаблон:Nastaliq) | lajjā (Шаблон:Lang) | shame | लज्जा (lajjā) | Śarm (शर्म Шаблон:Nastaliq), hayā (हया Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
Classical Persian
Persian words which were not later artificially added were loaned from Classical Persian, the historical variety of the tenth, eleventh and twelfth centuries, which continued to be used as literary language and lingua franca under the Persianate dynasties of the Late Middle Ages and Early Modern Era and is not the same as Modern Persian (though the Dari Persian of Afghanistan is a direct descendant).
Borrowings
Persian loanwords in Hindustani are mainly borrowed nouns and adjectives as well as adverbs and conjunctions and some other parts of speech.
| Hindustani | Meaning | Persian | Corresponding Sanskrit loan |
|---|---|---|---|
| sāyā (साया Шаблон:Nastaliq) | shadow/shade | سایه (sāya) | čhāyā (छाया Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| pares͟hān (परेशान Шаблон:Nastaliq) | anxious | پرِیشان (parēšān) | čintit (चिंतित Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| hames͟hā (हमेशा Шаблон:Nastaliq) | always/forever | همِیشه (hamēša) | sadaiv (सदैव Шаблон:Nastaliq), sadā (सदा Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| k͟hus͟hī (ख़ुशी Шаблон:Nastaliq) | happiness | خوشی (xušī) | ānand (आनंद Шаблон:Nastaliq), sukh (सुख Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| sabzī (सब्ज़ी Шаблон:Nastaliq) | vegetable | سبزی (sabzī) | sāg (साग Шаблон:Nastaliq), s͟hāk (शाक Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| mehrbān (मेहरबान Шаблон:Nastaliq) | kind | مهربان (meherbān) | dayālu (दयालु Шаблон:Nastaliq), karunāmaya (करुणामय کرُنامیَ) |
| agar (अगर Шаблон:Nastaliq) | if | اگر (agar) | yadi (यदि Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| dīvār (दीवार Шаблон:Nastaliq) | wall | دیوار (dīwār) | bhīt (भीत Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| darvāzā (दरवाज़ा Шаблон:Nastaliq) | door/gate | دروازه (darwāza) | dwār (द्वार Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| andar (अंदर Шаблон:Nastaliq) | inside/in | اندر (andar) | bhītar (भीतर Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| tāzā (ताज़ा Шаблон:Nastaliq) | fresh | تازه (tāza) | nirjar (निर्जर Шаблон:Nastaliq), jarhīn (जरहीन جرہین) |
| roz (रोज़ Шаблон:Nastaliq) | day | رُوز (rōz) | din (दिन Шаблон:Nastaliq), diwas (दिवस دِوس) |
| s͟hahr (शहर Шаблон:Nastaliq) | city | شهر (šahr) | nagar (नगर Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| hind (हिंद Шаблон:Nastaliq) | India | هند (hind) | bhārat (भारत Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| ki (कि Шаблон:Nastaliq) | that (conjunction) | که (ki) | - |
| vāh (वाह Шаблон:Nastaliq) | wow | واه (wāh) | - |
From stems:
Present:
| Hindustani | Meaning | Persian verb | Non-Persian alternative |
|---|---|---|---|
| par (पर Шаблон:Nastaliq) | wing | پریدن (parīdan, "to fly") | paṉkh (पंख Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| pasand (पसंद Шаблон:Nastaliq) | liked, liking | پسندیدن (pasandīdan, "to prefer") | čahit (चहित Шаблон:Nastaliq), čāhat (चाहत Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| k͟hwāb/k͟hāb (ख़्वाब/ख़ाब Шаблон:Nastaliq) | dream | خوابیدن (xābīdan, "to sleep") | sapnā (सपना Шаблон:Nastaliq), swapna (स्वप्न Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
Past:
| Hindustani | Meaning | Persian verb | Non-Persian alternative |
|---|---|---|---|
| āmad (आमद Шаблон:Nastaliq) | arrival | آمدن (āmadan, "to come") | āgaman (आगमन Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| s͟hikast (शिकस्त Шаблон:Nastaliq) | defeat, defeated | شکستن (šikastan, "to break") | parājay (पराजय Шаблон:Nastaliq), parājit (पराजित Шаблон:Nastaliq), hār (हार Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| giraft (गिरफ़्त Шаблон:Nastaliq) | grip, gripped | گرفتن (giriftan, "to grab") | pakaṛ (पकड़ Шаблон:Nastaliq), jabt (जब्त Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
From participles:
Present:
| Hindustani | Meaning | Persian verb | Non-Persian alternative |
|---|---|---|---|
| āyindā/āʾindā (आइन्दा Шаблон:Nastaliq) | future | آمدن (āmadan, "to come") | bhaviṣya (भविष्य Шаблон:Nastaliq), āgāmī (आगामी آگامی) |
| parindā (परिन्दा Шаблон:Nastaliq) | bird | پریدن (parīdan, "to fly") | pančhī (पंछी Шаблон:Nastaliq), pakṣī (पक्षी Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| zindā (ज़िन्दा Шаблон:Nastaliq) | living, alive | زیستن (zīstan, "to live") | jīvit (जीवित Шаблон:Nastaliq), jīvant (जीवंत جیونت) |
Past:
| Hindustani | Meaning | Persian verb | Non-Persian alternative |
|---|---|---|---|
| bastā (बस्ता Шаблон:Nastaliq) | bag, sack | بستن (bastan, "to bind") | thailā (थैला Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| pasandīdā (पसन्दीदा Шаблон:Nastaliq) | favorite | پسندیدن (pasandīdan, "to prefer") | priya (प्रिय Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| murdā (मुर्दा Шаблон:Nastaliq) | dead | مردن (murdan, "to die") | mr̥t (मृत Шаблон:Nastaliq), hat (हत ہت) |
By adding noun suffix ـِش (-iš):
| Hindustani | Meaning | Persian verb | Non-Persian alternative |
|---|---|---|---|
| parvaris͟h (परवरिश Шаблон:Nastaliq) | upbringing, rearing | پروردن (parwardan, "to foster") | pālanpoṣaṇ (पालन-पोषण Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| kos͟his͟h (कोशिश Шаблон:Nastaliq) | effort, attempt | کوشیدن (kōšīdan, "to attempt") | prayās (प्रयास Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| varzis͟h (वर्ज़िश Шаблон:Nastaliq) | exercise | ورزیدن (warzīdan, "to exercise") | vyāyām (व्यायाम Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| āzmāʾis͟h (आज़माइश Шаблон:Nastaliq) | trial, test | آزمودن (āzmūdan, "to test") | vičāraṇ (विचारण Шаблон:Nastaliq), parīkṣaṇ (परीक्षण Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
By forming composite words with Arabic:
| Hindustani | Meaning | Persian affix | Arabic element | Non-Persian alternative |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| k͟hūbsūrat (ख़ूबसूरत Шаблон:Nastaliq) | beautiful | خوب (xūb, "good") | صورت (sūrat, "appearance") | sundar (सुंदर Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| darasal (दरअसल Шаблон:Nastaliq) | actually | در (dar, "at, in") | اصل (asl, "reality") | vastutah (वस्तुत: Шаблон:Nastaliq), vastabik (वास्तबिक واستبِک) |
| fīsad (फ़ीसद Шаблон:Nastaliq) | percent | صد (sad, "hundred") | فی (fī, "in, at") | pratis͟hat (प्रतिशत Шаблон:Nastaliq), s͟hatansh (शतांश ستانش) |
| rahmdil (रहमदिल Шаблон:Nastaliq) | compassionate | دل (dil, "heart") | رحم (rahm, "mercy") | kr̥pālū (कृपालु Шаблон:Nastaliq), saday (सदय Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
Loaned Verbs
A substantial number of Hindustani verbs have been loaned from Punjabi,[13] however, verb stems originating in less closely related languages are relatively rare. There are a few common verbs formed directly out of Persian stems (or nouns in some cases) listed below.
| Hindustani verb | Verb meaning | Persian stem | Stem meaning | Non-Persian alternative |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| k͟harīdnā (ख़रीदना Шаблон:Nastaliq) | to buy | خرید (xarīd) - noun | buy, purchase | kray karnā (क्रय करना Шаблон:Nastaliq), mol lenā (मोल लेना Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| guzārnā (गुज़ारना Шаблон:Nastaliq) | to pass (transitive), to spend | گذار (guẕār) | letting | bitānā (बिताना Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| navāznā (नवाज़ना Шаблон:Nastaliq) | to bestow, to patronize, to favor | نواز (nawāz) | playing, caressing | pradān karnā (प्रदान करना Шаблон:Nastaliq), arpit karnā (अर्पित करना Шаблон:Nastaliq), kr̥pā karnā (कृपा करना Шаблон:Nastaliq), sahāyatā denā (सहायता देना Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| guzarnā (गुज़रना Шаблон:Nastaliq) | to pass (intransitive), to occur | گذر (guẕar) | passing | bītnā (बीतना Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| farmānā (फ़रमाना Шаблон:Nastaliq) | to dictate, to say (formal) | فرما (farmā) | ordering, saying (formal) | āgyā karnā (आज्ञा करना Шаблон:Nastaliq), ādes͟h karnā (आदेश करना Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| badalnā (बदलना Шаблон:Nastaliq) | to change | بدل (badl) - noun | substitute, change | parivartan karnā (परिवर्तन करना Шаблон:Nastaliq), vinimay karnā (विनिमय करना Шаблон:Nastaliq), palṭā denā (पलटा देना Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| laraznā (लरज़ना Шаблон:Nastaliq) | to tremble | لرز (laraz) | shivering | kāṉpnā (कांपना Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
| guzrānnā (गुज़रानना Шаблон:Nastaliq) | to pass time, to present, to adduce | گذران (guẕarān) | passing time | prastut karnā (प्रस्तुत करना Шаблон:Nastaliq), sāmne rakhnā (सामने रखना Шаблон:Nastaliq) |
Arabic
Some of the most commonly used words from Arabic, all entering the language through Persian, include vaqt (वक़्त Шаблон:Nastaliq) "time", qalam (क़लम Шаблон:Nastaliq) "pen", kitāb (किताब Шаблон:Nastaliq) "book", qarīb (क़रीब Шаблон:Nastaliq) "near", sahīh/sahī (सहीह/सही Шаблон:Nastaliq) "correct, right", g͟harīb (ग़रीब Шаблон:Nastaliq) "poor", amīr (अमीर Шаблон:Nastaliq) "rich", duniyā (दुनिया Шаблон:Nastaliq) "world", hisāb (हिसाब Шаблон:Nastaliq) "calculation", qudrat (क़ुदरत Шаблон:Nastaliq) "nature", nasīb (नसीब Шаблон:Nastaliq) "fate, luck, fortune", ajīb (अजीब Шаблон:Nastaliq) "strange, unusual", qānūn (क़ानून Шаблон:Nastaliq) "law", filhāl (फ़िलहाल Шаблон:Nastaliq) "currently", sirf (सिर्फ़ Шаблон:Nastaliq) "only, mere", taqrīban (तक़रीबन Шаблон:Nastaliq) "close to, about", k͟habar (ख़बर Шаблон:Nastaliq) "news", ak͟hbār (अख़बार Шаблон:Nastaliq) "newspaper", qilā (क़िला Шаблон:Nastaliq) "fort", kursī (कुर्सी Шаблон:Nastaliq) "chair, seat", s͟harbat (शर्बत Шаблон:Nastaliq) "drink, beverage", muāf/māf (मुआफ़/माफ़ Шаблон:Nastaliq) "forgiven, pardoned", zarūrī (ज़रूरी Шаблон:Nastaliq) "necessary", etc.[14]
Chagatai Turkic
There are a very small number of Turkic words in Hindustani, numbering as little as 24 according to some sources,[15] all entering the language through Persian. Other words attributed to Turkish, the most widely spoken Turkic language, are actually words which are common to Hindustani and Turkish but are of non-Turkic origins, mostly Perso-Arabic.[16] Both languages also share mutual loans from English. Most notably, some honorifics and surnames common in Hindustani are Turkic due to the influence of the ethnically Turkic Mughals - these include k͟hānam (ख़ानम Шаблон:Nastaliq), bājī (बाजी Шаблон:Nastaliq) "sister", and begam (बेगम Шаблон:Nastaliq). Common surnames include k͟hān (ख़ान Шаблон:Nastaliq), čug͟htāʾī (चुग़ताई Шаблон:Nastaliq), pās͟hā (पाशा Шаблон:Nastaliq), and arsalān (अर्सलान Шаблон:Nastaliq). Common Turkic words used in everyday Hindustani are qaiṉčī/qainčī (क़ैंची Шаблон:Nastaliq) "scissors", annā (अन्ना Шаблон:Nastaliq) "governess", tamg͟hā (तमग़ा Шаблон:Nastaliq) "stamp, medal", and čaqmaq (चक़मक़ Шаблон:Nastaliq) "flint".
Mandarin Chinese
There are not many Chinese words that were loaned into Hindustani in spite of geographical proximity.
| Hindustani | Meaning | Chinese/Sinitic | Note |
|---|---|---|---|
| čāy/čāʾe (चाय Шаблон:Nastaliq) | tea | 茶 (chá) | Derived through Persian Шаблон:Lang (čāy) |
| čīn (चीन Шаблон:Nastaliq) | China | 秦 (qín) | Derived through Sanskrit Шаблон:Lang (cīna) |
| līčī (लीची Шаблон:Nastaliq) | lychee | 茘枝 (lìzhī) |
European languages
Portuguese
A small number of Hindustani words were derived from Portuguese due to interaction with colonists and missionaries. These include the following:
| Hindustani | Meaning | Portuguese |
|---|---|---|
| anannās/anānās (अनन्नास/अनानास Шаблон:Nastaliq) | pineapple | ananás |
| pādrī (पाद्री Шаблон:Nastaliq) | priest | padre |
| bālṭī (बाल्टी Шаблон:Nastaliq) | bucket | balde |
| čābī (चाबी Шаблон:Nastaliq) | key | chave |
| girjā (गिर्जा Шаблон:Nastaliq) | church | igreja |
| almārī (अलमारी Шаблон:Nastaliq) | cupboard | armário |
| botal (बोतल Шаблон:Nastaliq) | bottle | botelha |
| aspatāl (अस्पताल Шаблон:Nastaliq) | hospital | Hospital |
| olandez/valandez (ओलंदेज़/वलंदेज़ Шаблон:Nastaliq) | Dutch | holandês |
French
A few French loans exist in Hindustani resulting from French colonial settlements in India. Other French words such as s͟hemīz (शेमीज़ Шаблон:Nastaliq) "chemise" and kūpan (कूपन Шаблон:Nastaliq) "coupon" have entered the language through English.
| Hindustani | Meaning | French |
|---|---|---|
| kārtūs (कारतूस Шаблон:Nastaliq) | cartridge | cartouche |
| restorāṉ (रेस्तोरां/रेस्तोराँ Шаблон:Nastaliq) | restaurant | restaurant |
English
Loanwords from English were borrowed through interaction with the British East India Company and later British rule. English-language education for the native administrative and richer classes during British rule accelerated the adoption of English vocabulary in Hindustani. Many technical and modern terms were and still are borrowed from English, such as ḍākṭar/ḍôkṭar (डाक्टर/डॉक्टर Шаблон:Nastaliq) "doctor", ṭaiksī (टैक्सी Шаблон:Nastaliq) "taxi", and kilomīṭar (किलोमीटर Шаблон:Nastaliq) "kilometer".
Photo-semantic matching
Some loanwords from English undergo a significant phonetic transformation. This can either be done intentionally, in order to nativize words or to make them sound more or less "English-sounding", or happen naturally. Words often undergo a phonetic change in order to make them easier for native speakers to pronounce while others change due to a lack of English education or incomplete knowledge of English phonetics, where an alternate pronunciation becomes an accepted norm and overtakes the original as the most used pronunciation.
| Hindustani | English |
|---|---|
| darjan (दर्जन Шаблон:Nastaliq)[17] | dozen |
| tijorī (तिजोरी Шаблон:Nastaliq) | treasury |
| satalta (सतलता Шаблон:Nastaliq) | subtlety |
| māčis (माचिस Шаблон:Nastaliq) | match(es) |
| godām (गोदाम Шаблон:Nastaliq) | godown |
| bigul (बिगुल Шаблон:Nastaliq) | bugle |
| raṉgrūṭ (रंगरूट Шаблон:Nastaliq) | recruit |
| ṭamāṭar (टमाटर Шаблон:Nastaliq) | tomato |
| kābīnā (काबीना Шаблон:Nastaliq) | cabinet |
| ketlī (केतली Шаблон:Nastaliq) | kettle |
| darāz (दराज़ Шаблон:Nastaliq) | drawer(s) |
| bam (बम Шаблон:Nastaliq) | bomb |
| lālṭen (लालटेन Шаблон:Nastaliq) | lantern |
| būčaṛ (बूचड़ Шаблон:Nastaliq) | butcher |
| ṭaṉkī (टंकी Шаблон:Nastaliq) | tank |
| baksā (बक्सा Шаблон:Nastaliq) | box |
| janvarī (जनवरी Шаблон:Nastaliq) | January |
References
Sources
- Hindi Language and Literature, a site about Hindi's usage, dialects, and history by Dr. Yashwant K. Malaiya, Professor at Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA.
- Hindi Language Resources A comprehensive site on the Hindi language built by Yashwant Malaiya
- Indian Department of Official Language
- Dua, Hans R. (1994a). Hindustani. In Asher (Ed.) (pp. 1554)
- Liberman, Anatoly. (2004). Word Origins ... and How We Know Them: Etymology for Everyone. Delhi: Oxford University Press. Шаблон:ISBN.
- Rai, Amrit. (1984). A house divided: The origin and development of Hindi-Hindustani. Delhi: Oxford University Press. Шаблон:ISBN.
- Kuczkiewicz-Fraś, Agnieszka. (2003). "Perso-Arabic Hybrids in Hindi. The Socio-linguistic and Structural Analysis". Delhi: Manohar. Шаблон:ISBN.
- Kuczkiewicz-Fraś, Agnieszka. (2008). "Perso-Arabic Loanwords in Hindustani. Part I: Dictionary". Kraków: Księgarnia Akademicka. Шаблон:ISBN.
- Kuczkiewicz-Fraś, Agnieszka. (2012). "Perso-Arabic Loanwords in Hindustani. Part II: Linguistic Study". Kraków: Księgarnia Akademicka. Шаблон:ISBN.
Шаблон:Hindi topics Шаблон:Urdu topics
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 3,0 3,1 Шаблон:Cite journal at pp. 67-69.
- ↑ [1]
- ↑ Masica, p. 65
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 10,0 10,1 10,2 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 13,0 13,1 Шаблон:Cite Q
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ With intrusive hypercorrectional 'r' via arhotic British English
