Английская Википедия:Hindustani phonology
Шаблон:Selfref Шаблон:IPA notice Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Use Indian EnglishHindustani is the lingua franca of northern India and Pakistan, and through its two standardized registers, Hindi and Urdu, a co-official language of India and co-official and national language of Pakistan respectively. Phonological differences between the two standards are minimal.
Vowels
| Front | Central | Back | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| long | short | short | long | ||
| Close | Шаблон:IPA link | Шаблон:IPA link | Шаблон:IPA link | Шаблон:IPA link | |
| Close-mid | Шаблон:IPA link | Шаблон:IPA link | |||
| Open-mid | Шаблон:IPA link | Шаблон:IPA link | Шаблон:IPA link | ||
| Open | (Шаблон:IPA link) | Шаблон:IPA link | |||
Hindustani natively possesses a symmetrical ten-vowel system.[1] The vowels Шаблон:IPA are always short in length, while the vowels Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA are usually considered long, in addition to an eleventh vowel Шаблон:IPA which is found in English loanwords. The distinction between short and long vowels is often described as tenseness, with short vowels being lax, and long vowels being tense.Шаблон:Sfn Vowels are somewhat longer before voiced stops than before voiceless stops.[2] Additionally, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA occur as conditional allophones of Шаблон:IPA.
Vowel Шаблон:IPA
Шаблон:IPA is often realized more open than mid Шаблон:IPAblink, i.e. as near-open Шаблон:IPAblink.[3] It is subject to schwa deletion word-medially in certain contexts.
Vowel Шаблон:IPA
The open central vowel is transcribed in IPA by either Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA.
In Urdu, there is further short Шаблон:IPA (spelled Шаблон:Lang, as in Шаблон:Lang kamra Шаблон:IPA-ur) in word-final position, which contrasts with Шаблон:IPA (spelled Шаблон:Lang, as in Шаблон:Lang laṛkā Шаблон:IPA-ur). This contrast is often not realized by Urdu speakers, and always neutralized in Hindi (where both sounds uniformly correspond to Шаблон:IPA).Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
Vowels Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA
Among the close vowels, what in Sanskrit are thought to have been primarily distinctions of vowel length (that is Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA), have become in Hindustani distinctions of quality, or length accompanied by quality (that is, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA).[4] The opposition of length in the close vowels has been neutralized in word-final position, only allowing long close vowels in final position. As a result, Sanskrit loans which originally have a short close vowel are realized with a long close vowel, e.g. Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang – Шаблон:Lang 'energy') and Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang – Шаблон:Lang 'item') are Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, not *Шаблон:IPA and *Шаблон:IPA.[5]
Vowels Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA
The vowel represented graphically as Шаблон:Lang – Шаблон:Lang (romanized as Шаблон:Transl) has been variously transcribed as Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA.[6] Among sources for this article, Шаблон:Harvcoltxt, pictured to the right, uses Шаблон:IPA, while Шаблон:Harvcoltxt and Шаблон:Harvcoltxt use Шаблон:IPA. Furthermore, an eleventh vowel Шаблон:IPA is found in English loanwords, such as Шаблон:IPA ('bat').[7] Hereafter, Шаблон:Lang – Шаблон:Lang (romanized as Шаблон:Transl) will be represented as Шаблон:IPA to distinguish it from Шаблон:IPA, the latter.
In addition, Шаблон:IPA occurs as a conditioned allophone of Шаблон:IPA (schwa) within the sequence Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:IPA before the next syllable or word-finally due to schwa deletion).[5] This change is part of the prestige dialect of Delhi, but may not occur for every speaker. Here are some examples of this process:
| Hindi/Urdu | Transliteration | Phonemic | Phonetic |
|---|---|---|---|
| कहना / کہنا "to say" | kahnā | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA |
| शहर /شہر "city" | śahar | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA |
| ठहरना / ٹھہرنا "to wait" | ṭhaharnā | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA |
However, the fronting of schwa does not occur in words with a schwa only on one side of the Шаблон:IPA such as Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:Lang – Шаблон:Lang 'a story') or Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:Lang – Шаблон:Lang 'outside').
Vowels Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA
The vowel Шаблон:IPA occurs in proximity to Шаблон:IPA if the Шаблон:IPA is surrounded by one of the sides by a schwa and on other side by a round vowel (due to Hindustani phonotactics, this generally only occurs in the sequences Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA). It differs from the vowel Шаблон:IPA in that it is a short vowel. For example, in Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:IPA the Шаблон:IPA is surrounded on one side by a schwa and a round vowel on the other side. One or both of the schwas will become Шаблон:IPA giving the pronunciation Шаблон:IPA.
Some Eastern dialects kept Шаблон:IPA as diphthongs, pronouncing them as [aɪ~əɪ, aʊ~əʊ].Шаблон:Sfnp
Nasalization of vowels
As in French and Portuguese, there are nasalized vowels in Hindustani. There is disagreement over the issue of the nature of nasalization (barring English-loaned Шаблон:IPA which is never nasalized[7]). Шаблон:Harvcoltxt presents four differing viewpoints:
- there are no Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, possibly because of the effect of nasalization on vowel quality;
- there is phonemic nasalization of all vowels;
- all vowel nasalization is predictable (i.e. allophonic);
- Nasalized long vowel phonemes (Шаблон:IPA) occur word-finally and before voiceless stops; instances of nasalized short vowels (Шаблон:IPA) and of nasalized long vowels before voiced stops (the latter, presumably because of a deleted nasal consonant) are allophonic.
Masica[8] supports this last view.
Vowel orthography with diacritics and English approximations
The principal vowel phonemes may be organised as follows to demonstrate the orthographic conventions for vowels.
Consonants
Шаблон:Listen Hindustani has a core set of 28 consonants inherited from earlier Indo-Aryan. Supplementing these are two consonants that are internal developments in specific word-medial contexts,[16] and seven consonants originally found in loan words, whose expression is dependent on factors such as status (class, education, etc.) and cultural register (Modern Standard Hindi vs Urdu).
Most native consonants may occur geminate (doubled in length; exceptions are Шаблон:IPA). Geminate consonants are always medial and preceded by one of the interior vowels (that is, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, or Шаблон:IPA). They all occur monomorphemically except Шаблон:IPA, which occurs only in a few Sanskrit loans where a morpheme boundary could be posited in between, e.g. Шаблон:IPA for Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:IPA ('without shame').[7]
For the English speaker, a notable feature of the Hindustani consonants is that there is a four-way distinction of phonation among plosives, rather than the two-way distinction found in English. The phonations are:
- tenuis, as Шаблон:IPA, which is like Шаблон:Angbr in English spin
- voiced, as Шаблон:IPA, which is like Шаблон:Angbr in English bin
- aspirated, as Шаблон:IPA, which is like Шаблон:Angbr in English pin, and
- murmured, as Шаблон:IPA.
The last is commonly called "voiced aspirate", though Шаблон:Harvcoltxt notes that,
"Evidence from experimental phonetics, however, has demonstrated that the two types of sounds involve two distinct types of voicing and release mechanisms. The series of so-called voice aspirates should now properly be considered to involve the voicing mechanism of murmur, in which the air flow passes through an aperture between the arytenoid cartilages, as opposed to passing between the ligamental vocal bands."
The murmured consonants are believed to be a reflex of murmured consonants in Proto-Indo-European, a phonation that is absent in all branches of the Indo-European family except Indo-Aryan and Armenian.
- Notes
- Marginal and non-universal phonemes are in parentheses.
- Шаблон:IPA is lateral Шаблон:IPAblink for some speakers.[17]Шаблон:Fix
- Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:IPA are post-velar.[18]
- Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:IPA are mostly replaced by Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:IPA in Hindi respectively, except in the careful speech of educated speakers.[19][20]Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:IPA is found in Urdu and is rarer in Hindi, often being replaced with Шаблон:IPA (or further by Шаблон:IPA) in the latter; an example of a word containing this sound is Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:Lang – Шаблон:Lang 'dragon').[21][22][23]
Stops in final position are not released, although they continue to maintain the four-way phonation distinction in final position. Шаблон:IPA varies freely with Шаблон:IPA, and can also be pronounced Шаблон:IPA. Шаблон:IPA is usually flapped or trilled.[24] In intervocalic position, it may have a single contact and be described as a flap Шаблон:IPAblink,[25] but it may also be a clear trill, especially in word-initial and syllable-final positions, and geminate Шаблон:IPA is always a trill in Arabic and Persian loanwords, e.g. Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:Lang – Шаблон:Lang 'little') versus well-trilled Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:Lang – Шаблон:Lang 'particle').[3] The palatal and velar nasals Шаблон:IPA occur only in consonant clusters, where each nasal is followed by a homorganic stop, as an allophone of a nasal vowel followed by a stop, and in Sanskrit loanwords.[16][3] However /n/ + velar clusters also occur, eg. /ʊn.kaː/ making /ŋ/ phonemic. There are murmured sonorants, Шаблон:IPA, but these are considered to be consonant clusters with Шаблон:IPA in the analysis adopted by Шаблон:Harvcoltxt.
The fricative Шаблон:IPA in Hindustani is typically voiced (as Шаблон:IPA), especially when surrounded by vowels, but there is no phonemic difference between this voiced fricative and its voiceless counterpart Шаблон:IPA.
Hindustani also has a phonemic difference between the dental plosives and the so-called retroflex plosives. The dental plosives in Hindustani are laminal-denti alveolar as in Spanish, and the tongue-tip must be well in contact with the back of the upper front teeth. The retroflex series is not purely retroflex; it actually has an apico-postalveolar (also described as apico-pre-palatal) articulation, and sometimes in words such as Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:Lang – Шаблон:Lang 'broken') it even becomes alveolar.[26]
In some Indo-Aryan languages, the plosives Шаблон:IPA and the flaps Шаблон:IPA are allophones in complementary distribution, with the former occurring in initial, geminate and postnasal positions and the latter occurring in intervocalic and final positions. However, in Standard Hindi they contrast in similar positions, as in Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang – Шаблон:Lang 'bird') vs Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang – Шаблон:Lang 'fearless').[27]
Allophony of Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA
Hindustani does not distinguish between Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, specifically Hindi. These are distinct phonemes in English, but conditional allophones of the phoneme Шаблон:IPA in Hindustani (written Шаблон:Angbr in Hindi or Шаблон:Angbr in Urdu), meaning that contextual rules determine when it is pronounced as Шаблон:IPA and when it is pronounced as Шаблон:IPA. Шаблон:IPA is pronounced Шаблон:IPA in onglide position, i.e. between an onset consonant and a following vowel, as in Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang, 'food dish'), and Шаблон:IPA elsewhere, as in Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang, 'vow'). Native Hindi speakers are usually unaware of the allophonic distinctions, though these are apparent to native English speakers.[28]
In most situations, the allophony is non-conditional, i.e. the speaker can choose Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, or an intermediate sound based on personal habit and preference, and still be perfectly intelligible, as long as the meaning is constant. This includes words such as advait (Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang) (pronounced [əd̪ˈʋɛːt̪]), which can be pronounced equally correctly as Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA.[28]
External borrowing
Sanskrit borrowing has reintroduced Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA into formal Modern Standard Hindi. They occur primarily in Sanskrit loanwords and proper nouns. In casual speech, they are sometimes replaced with Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA.[7] Шаблон:IPA does not occur word-initially and has a nasalized flap Шаблон:IPA as a common allophone.[16]
Loanwords from Persian (including some words which Persian itself borrowed from Arabic or Turkish) introduced six consonants, Шаблон:IPA. Being Persian in origin, these are seen as a defining feature of Urdu, although these sounds officially exist in Hindi and modified Devanagari characters are available to represent them.[29][30] Among these, Шаблон:IPA, also found in English and Portuguese loanwords, are now considered well-established in Hindi; indeed, Шаблон:IPA appears to be encroaching upon and replacing Шаблон:IPA even in native (non-Persian, non-English, non-Portuguese) Hindi words as well as many other Indian languages such as Bengali, Gujarati and Marathi, as happened in Greek with phi.[16] This Шаблон:IPA to Шаблон:IPA shift also occasionally occurs in Urdu.[31] While [z] is a foreign sound, it is also natively found as an allophone of /s/ beside voiced consonants.
The other three Persian loans, Шаблон:IPA, are still considered to fall under the domain of Urdu, and are also used by some Hindi speakers; however, other Hindi speakers may assimilate these sounds to Шаблон:IPA respectively.[20][29][32] The sibilant Шаблон:IPA is found in loanwords from all sources (Arabic, English, Portuguese, Persian, Sanskrit) and is well-established.[7] Some Hindi speakers (especially those from rural areas) pronounce the Шаблон:IPA sounds as Шаблон:IPA), though these same speakers, having a Sanskritic education, may hyperformally uphold Шаблон:IPA and [[Voiceless_retroflex_sibilant|Шаблон:IPA]].[33][19] In contrast, for native speakers of Urdu, the maintenance of Шаблон:IPA is not commensurate with education and sophistication, but is characteristic of all social levels.[32] The sibilant Шаблон:IPA is very rare and is found in loanwords from Persian, Portuguese, and English and is considered to fall under the domain of Urdu and although it is officially present in Hindi, many speakers of Hindi assimilate it to Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA.[21][19]
Being the main sources from which Hindustani draws its higher, learned terms– English, Sanskrit, Arabic, and to a lesser extent Persian provide loanwords with a rich array of consonant clusters. The introduction of these clusters into the language contravenes a historical tendency within its native core vocabulary to eliminate clusters through processes such as cluster reduction and epenthesis.[34] Шаблон:Harvcoltxt lists distinctively Sanskrit/Hindi biconsonantal clusters of initial Шаблон:IPA and final Шаблон:IPA, and distinctively Perso-Arabic/Urdu biconsonantal clusters of final Шаблон:IPA.
Suprasegmental features
Hindustani has a stress accent, but it is not as important as in English. To predict stress placement, the concept of syllable weight is needed:
- A light syllable (one mora) ends in a short vowel Шаблон:IPA: V
- A heavy syllable (two moras) ends in a long vowel Шаблон:IPA or in a short vowel and a consonant: VV, VC
- An extra-heavy syllable (three moras) ends in a long vowel and a consonant, or a short vowel and two consonants: VVC, VCC
Stress is on the heaviest syllable of the word, and in the event of a tie, on the last such syllable. If all syllables are light, the penultimate is stressed. However, the final mora of the word is ignored when making this assignment (Hussein 1997) [or, equivalently, the final syllable is stressed either if it is extra-heavy, and there is no other extra-heavy syllable in the word or if it is heavy, and there is no other heavy or extra-heavy syllable in the word]. For example, with the ignored mora in parentheses:[35]
- Шаблон:IPA
- Шаблон:IPA
- Шаблон:IPA
- Шаблон:IPA
- Шаблон:IPA
- Шаблон:IPA
- Шаблон:IPA
- Шаблон:IPA
- Шаблон:IPA
- Шаблон:IPA
- Шаблон:IPA ~ Шаблон:IPA
- Шаблон:IPA
- Шаблон:IPA
- Шаблон:IPA
- Шаблон:IPA
- Шаблон:IPA
- Шаблон:IPA
- Шаблон:IPA
Content words in Hindustani normally begin on a low pitch, followed by a rise in pitch.[36][37] Strictly speaking, Hindustani, like most other Indian languages, is rather a syllable-timed language. The schwa Шаблон:IPA has a strong tendency to vanish into nothing (syncopated) if its syllable is unaccented.
See also
- IPA vowel chart with audio Шаблон:Spoken
- IPA pulmonic consonant chart with audio Шаблон:Spoken
- IPA chart (vowels and consonants) - 2015. (pdf file)
- Schwa deletion in Indo-Aryan languages
- Urdu alphabet
- Devanagari
References
Bibliography
- Шаблон:Citation.
- Шаблон:Citation.
- Шаблон:Citation.
- Шаблон:Citation.
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Citation
- Шаблон:Citation.
- Шаблон:Citation.
Шаблон:Hindi topics Шаблон:Urdu topics Шаблон:Language phonologies
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ 3,0 3,1 3,2 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ 5,0 5,1 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ 7,0 7,1 7,2 7,3 7,4 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Diacritics in Urdu are normally not written and usually implied and interpreted based on the context of the sentence
- ↑ Hindi does not have a diacritic to represent Шаблон:IPA as it is the inherent vowel of the Devanagari script. However, there does exist a diacritic, ्, for suppressing Шаблон:IPA, also though it is not often used or needed in modern Hindi orthography.
- ↑ 11,0 11,1 Hindi has individual letters for each of the aspirated consonants, whereas Urdu has a specific letter to represent aspiration after any consonant
- ↑ As this is a diacritic affecting the preceding vowel, it cannot be the initial character of a word.
- ↑ In Urdu the initial form (letter) for representing a nasalised wordШаблон:Clarify is: ن٘ (nūn + small nūn ghunna diacritic)
- ↑ As this symbol can represents any nasal consonant phoneme depending on which consonant it is followed by, the particular IPA character used to represent this sound depends on the context.
- ↑ This character does not have an initial form and is not used for initial nasals in Hindi
- ↑ 16,0 16,1 16,2 16,3 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ 19,0 19,1 19,2 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 20,0 20,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 21,0 21,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Nazir Hassan (1980) Urdu phonetic reader, Omkar Nath Koul (1994) Hindi Phonetic Reader, Indian Institute of Language Studies; Foreign Service Institute (1957) Hindi: Basic Course
- ↑ "r is a tip dental trill, and often has but one flap", Thomas Cummings (1915) An Urdu Manual of the Phonetic, Inductive Or Direct Method
- ↑ Tiwari, Bholanath ([1966] 2004) Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Transl), Kitāb Mahal, Allahabad, Шаблон:ISBN.
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ 28,0 28,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 29,0 29,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 32,0 32,1 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ http://www.und.nodak.edu/dept/linguistics/theses/2001Dyrud.PDF Dyrud, Lars O. (2001) Hindi-Urdu: Stress Accent or Non-Stress Accent? (University of North Dakota, master's thesis)
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web Ramana Rao, G.V. and Srichand, J. (1996) Word Boundary Detection Using Pitch Variations. (IIT Madras, Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering)
