Английская Википедия:History of the International Phonetic Alphabet

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:IPA notice

Файл:IPA chart 2020.svg
The latest chart of the International Phonetic Alphabet, revised to 2020

The International Phonetic Alphabet was created soon after the International Phonetic Association was established in the late 19th century. It was intended as an international system of phonetic transcription for oral languages, originally for pedagogical purposes. The Association was established in Paris in 1886 by French and British language teachers led by Paul Passy. The prototype of the alphabet appeared in Шаблон:Harvp. The Association based their alphabet upon the Romic alphabet of Henry Sweet, which in turn was based on the Phonotypic Alphabet of Isaac Pitman and the Palæotype of Alexander John Ellis.Шаблон:Sfnp

The alphabet has undergone a number of revisions during its history, the most significant being the one put forth at the Kiel Convention in 1989. Changes to the alphabet are proposed and discussed in the Association's organ, Journal of the International Phonetic Association, previously known as Le Maître Phonétique and before that as The Phonetic Teacher, and then put to a vote by the Association's Council.

The extensions to the IPA for disordered speech were created in 1990, with a major revision in 2015.Шаблон:Sfnp

Early alphabets

The International Phonetic Association was founded in Paris in 1886 under the name Dhi Fonètik Tîtcerz' Asóciécon (The Phonetic Teachers' Association), a development of L'Association phonétique des professeurs d'Anglais ("The English Teachers' Phonetic Association"), to promote an international phonetic alphabet, designed primarily for English, French, and German, for use in schools to facilitate acquiring foreign pronunciation.Шаблон:Sfnp

Originally the letters had different phonetic values from language to language. For example, English Шаблон:IPA was transcribed with Шаблон:Angbr and French Шаблон:IPA with Шаблон:Angbr.Шаблон:Sfnp

As of May and November 1887, the alphabets were as follows:Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp

1888 alphabet

In the August–September 1888 issue of its journal, the Phonetic Teachers' Association published a standardized alphabet intended for transcription of multiple languages, reflecting its members' consensus that only one set of alphabet ought to be used for all languages,Шаблон:Sfnp along with a set of six principles:

  1. There should be a separate sign for each distinctive sound; that is, for each sound which, being used instead of another, in the same language, can change the meaning of a word.
  2. When any sound is found in several languages, the same sign should be used in all. This applies also to very similar shades of sound.
  3. The alphabet should consist as much as possible of the ordinary letters of the roman alphabet; as few new letters as possible being used.
  4. In assigning values to the roman letters, international usage should decide.
  5. The new letters should be suggestive of the sounds they represent, by their resemblance to the old ones.
  6. Diacritic marks should be avoided, being trying for the eyes and troublesome to write.Шаблон:Sfnp

The principles would govern all future development of the alphabet, with the exception of #5 and in some cases #2,Шаблон:Sfnp until they were revised drastically in 1989.Шаблон:Sfnp #6 has also been loosened, as diacritics have been admitted for limited purposes.Шаблон:Sfnp

The devised alphabet was as follows. The letters marked with an asterisk were "provisional shapes", which were meant to be replaced "when circumstances will allow".Шаблон:Sfnp

Shape Value
English French German Other languages
Шаблон:IPA as in put pas pferd
Шаблон:IPA but bas boot
Шаблон:IPA ten tant tot
Шаблон:IPA den dent da
Шаблон:IPA kind képi kuh
Шаблон:IPA good gai gut
Шаблон:IPA my ma mein
Шаблон:IPA no non nein
Шаблон:IPA règne Ital. regno
*Шаблон:IPA thing ding Ital. anche
Шаблон:IPA lull la lang
*Шаблон:IPA fille (in the south) Sp. llano, Ital. gli
Шаблон:IPA red rare rot (tongue-point r)
Шаблон:IPA rare rot (back r). – Dan. træ
Шаблон:IPA quer Flem. wrocht, Span. bibir.
Шаблон:IPA buis
Шаблон:IPA wel oui Ital. questo
Шаблон:IPA full fou voll
Шаблон:IPA vain vin wein
Шаблон:IPA thin Span. razon
Шаблон:IPA then Dan. gade
Шаблон:IPA seal sel weiss
Шаблон:IPA zeal zèle weise
*Шаблон:IPA she chat fisch Swed. skæl, Dan. sjæl, Ital. lascia
Шаблон:IPA leisure jeu genie
Шаблон:IPA ich
Шаблон:IPA you yak ja Swed. ja, Ital. jena
Шаблон:IPA ach Span. jota
Шаблон:IPA wagen
Шаблон:IPA high (haut) hoch
Шаблон:IPA full cou nuss
Шаблон:IPA soul pot soll
Шаблон:IPA not note Ital. notte
Шаблон:IPA pas vater Swed. sal
*Шаблон:IPA father Ital. mano, Swed. mann.
Шаблон:IPA eye, how patte mann
Шаблон:IPA man
Шаблон:IPA air air bær
Шаблон:IPA men né nett
Шаблон:IPA pit ni mit
*Шаблон:IPA but, fur
Шаблон:IPA seul kœnnen
*Шаблон:IPA peu sœhne
Шаблон:IPA nu dünn
*Шаблон:IPA für
Шаблон:IPA never je gabe
Шаблон:IPA Glottal catch
Шаблон:IPA Weak stressed Шаблон:IPA These modifications apply to all letters
Шаблон:IPA Strong stressed Шаблон:IPA
Шаблон:IPA Long Шаблон:IPA
Шаблон:IPA Nasal Шаблон:IPA (or any other vowel)
Шаблон:IPA Long and narrow Шаблон:IPA (or any other vowel)
Шаблон:IPA Voiceless Шаблон:IPA (or any other consonant)
Шаблон:IPA Mark of length

1900 chart

During the 1890s, the alphabet was expanded to cover sounds of Arabic and other non-European languages which did not easily fit the Latin alphabet.Шаблон:Sfnp

Throughout the first half of the 1900s, the Association published a series of booklets outlining the specifications of the alphabet in several languages, the first being a French edition published in 1900.Шаблон:Sfnp In the book, the chart appeared as follows:Шаблон:Sfnp

Laryn-
gales 		Guttu-
rales 		Uvu-
laires 		Vélaires Palatales Linguales Labiales
rowspan="5" Шаблон:Vert header Plosives Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Nasales Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Latérales Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Roulées Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Fricatives Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Efn Шаблон:IPA [1]
rowspan="5" Шаблон:Vert header Fermées
Mi-fermées
Moyennes
Mi-ouvertes
Ouvertes

Initially, the charts were arranged with laryngeal sounds on the left and labial ones on the right, following the convention of Alexander Melville Bell's Visible Speech.Шаблон:Sfnp Vowels and consonants were placed in a single chart, reflecting how sounds ranged in openness from stops (top) to open vowels (bottom). The voiced velar fricative was represented by Шаблон:Angbr (distinct from Шаблон:Angbr IPA, which represents a plosive) since 1895 until it was replaced by Шаблон:Angbr IPA in 1900.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp Шаблон:Angbr IPA too would be replaced by Шаблон:Angbr IPA in 1931.Шаблон:Sfnp

Not all letters, especially those in the fricatives row which included both fricatives in the modern sense and approximants, were self-explanatory and could only be discerned in the notes following the chart, which redefined letters using the orthographies of languages wherein the sounds they represent occur. For example:

Шаблон:IPA [is] the Arabic ain [modern Шаблон:Angbr IPA]. Шаблон:IPA is a simple bilabial fricative [modern Шаблон:Angbr IPA] ... Шаблон:IPA is the English hard th, Spanish z, Romaic [Greek] θ, Icelandic þ; Шаблон:IPA the English soft th, Icelandic ð, Romaic δ. Шаблон:IPA is the non-rolled r of Southern British, and can also be used for the simple r of Spanish and Portuguese [modern Шаблон:Angbr IPA] ... Шаблон:IPA is found in German in ach; Шаблон:IPA, in wagen, as often pronounced in the north of Germany [modern Шаблон:Angbr IPA]. Шаблон:IPA is the Arabic kh as in khalifa [modern Шаблон:Angbr IPA]; Шаблон:IPA the Danish r; the Parisian r is intermediate between Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA. — Шаблон:IPA [modern Шаблон:Angbr IPA] and Шаблон:IPA are the ha and he in Arabic.[2] — Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA are sounds in Circassian [approximately modern Шаблон:Angbr IPA[3]].Шаблон:Sfnp

Nasalized vowels were marked with a tilde: Шаблон:Angbr IPA, Шаблон:Angbr IPA, etc. It was noted that Шаблон:Angbr IPA may be used for "any vowel of obscure and intermediate quality found in weak syllables".Шаблон:Sfnp A long sound was distinguished by trailing Шаблон:Angbr IPA. Stress may be marked by Шаблон:Angbr IPA before the stressed syllable, as necessary, and the Swedish and Norwegian 'compound tone' (double tone) with Шаблон:Angbr IPA before the syllable.Шаблон:Sfnp

A voiced sound was marked by Шаблон:Angbr IPA and a voiceless one by Шаблон:Angbr IPA. Retroflex consonants were marked by Шаблон:Angbr IPA, as in Шаблон:Angbr IPA. Arabic emphatic consonants were marked by Шаблон:Angbr IPA: Шаблон:Angbr IPA. Consonants accompanied by a glottal stop (ejectives) were marked by Шаблон:Angbr IPA: Шаблон:Angbr IPA. Tense and lax vowels were distinguished by acute and grave accents: naught Шаблон:IPA, not Шаблон:IPA. Non-syllabic vowels were marked by a breve, as in Шаблон:Angbr IPA, and syllabic consonants by an acute below, as in Шаблон:Angbr IPA. Following letters, Шаблон:Angbr IPA stood for advanced tongue, Шаблон:Angbr IPA for retracted tongue, Шаблон:Angbr IPA for more open, Шаблон:Angbr IPA for more close, Шаблон:Angbr IPA for more rounded, and Шаблон:Angbr IPA for more spread. It was also noted that a superscript letter may be used to indicate a tinge of that sound in the sound represented by the preceding letter, as in Шаблон:Angbr IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp

It was emphasized, however, that such details need not usually be repeated in transcription.Шаблон:Sfnp The equivalent part of the 1904 English edition said:

[I]t must remain a general principle to leave out everything self-evident, and everything that can be explained once for all. This allows us to dispense almost completely with the modifiers, and with a good many other signs, except in scientific works and in introductory explanations. We write English fill and French fil the same way Шаблон:IPA; yet the English vowel is 'wide' and the French 'narrow', and the English Шаблон:IPA is formed much further back than the French. If we wanted to mark these differences, we should write English Шаблон:IPA, French Шаблон:IPA. But we need not do so: we know, once for all, that English short Шаблон:IPA is always Шаблон:IPA, and French Шаблон:IPA always Шаблон:IPA; that English Шаблон:IPA is always Шаблон:IPA and French Шаблон:IPA always Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp

1904 chart

In the 1904 Aim and Principles of the International Phonetic Association, the first of its kind in English, the chart appeared as:Шаблон:Sfnp

Bronchs Throat Uvula Back Front Tongue-point Lip
rowspan="5" Шаблон:Vert header Stopped Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Nasal Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Side Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Trilled Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Squeezed Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Efn Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
rowspan="5" Шаблон:Vert header Close
 
Half-close
Mid
Half-open
Open

In comparison to the 1900 chart, the glottal stop appeared as a modifier letter Шаблон:Angbr IPA rather than a full letter Шаблон:Angbr IPA, Шаблон:Angbr IPA replaced Шаблон:Angbr IPA, and Шаблон:Angbr IPA replaced Шаблон:Angbr IPA. Шаблон:Angbr IPA were removed from the chart and instead only mentioned as having "been suggested for a Circassian dental hiss [sibilant] and its voiced correspondent".Шаблон:Sfnp Шаблон:Angbr IPA is suggested for the Bantu labialized sibilant, and Шаблон:Angbr IPA as a diacritic to mark click consonants. It is noted that some prefer iconic Шаблон:Angbr IPA to Шаблон:Angbr IPA, and that Шаблон:Angbr IPA and Шаблон:Angbr IPA are unsatisfactory letters.

Laryngeal consonants had also been moved around, reflecting little understanding about the mechanisms of laryngeal articulations at the time.Шаблон:Sfnp Шаблон:Angbr IPA and Шаблон:Angbr IPA were defined as the Arabic Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfnp

In the notes, the half-length mark Шаблон:Angbr IPA is now mentioned, and it is noted that whispered sounds may be marked with a diacritical comma, as in Шаблон:Angbr IPA. A syllabic consonant is now marked by a vertical bar, as in Шаблон:Angbr IPA, rather than Шаблон:Angbr IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp It is noted, in this edition only, that "shifted vowels" may be indicated: Шаблон:Angbr IPA for in-mixed or in-front, and Шаблон:Angbr IPA for out-back.[4]

1912 chart

Following 1904, sets of specifications in French appeared in 1905 and 1908, with little to no changes.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp In 1912, the second English booklet appeared. For the first time, labial sounds were shown on the left and laryngeal ones on the right:Шаблон:Sfnp

Lips Lip-teeth Point and Blade Front Back Uvula Throat
rowspan="5" Шаблон:Vert header Plosive Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Nasal Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Lateral Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Rolled Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Fricative Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Efn Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
rowspan="5" Шаблон:Vert header
Front Mixed Back
Close
 
Half-close
Half-open
Open

Шаблон:Angbr IPA was added for the Czech fricative trill, Шаблон:Angbr IPA replaced Шаблон:Angbr IPA and Шаблон:Angbr IPA replaced Шаблон:Angbr IPA, following their approval in 1909.Шаблон:Sfnp Though not included in the chart, Шаблон:Angbr IPA was mentioned as an optional letter for the labiodental nasal. Шаблон:Angbr IPA was still designated as the "provisional" letter for the alveolar tap/flap. Шаблон:Angbr IPA were defined as the Bantu sounds with "tongue position of θ, ð, combined with strong lip-rounding". Шаблон:Angbr IPA were still included though not in the chart.Шаблон:Sfnp Шаблон:Angbr IPA was removed entirely.

For the first time, affricates, or Шаблон:"'[a]ssibilated' consonant groups, i. e. groups in which the two elements are so closely connected that the whole might be treated as a single sound", were noted as able to be represented with a tie bar, as in Шаблон:Angbr IPA. Palatalized consonants could be marked by a dot above the letter, as in Шаблон:Angbr IPA, "suggesting the connexion with the sounds i and j".Шаблон:Sfnp

Шаблон:Angbr IPA were no longer mentioned.

1921 chart

The 1921 Écriture phonétique internationale introduced new letters, some of which were never to be seen in any other booklet:Шаблон:Sfnp

Laryn-
gales 		Uvu-
laires 		Vélaires Palatales Linguales Labiales
rowspan="5" Шаблон:Vert header Plosives Шаблон:IPA[5] Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Nasales Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Latérales Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Roulées Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Fricatives Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Efn Шаблон:IPA
rowspan="4" Шаблон:Vert header Fermées
 
 
 
Mi-fermées
Mi-ouvertes
Ouvertes

Шаблон:Angbr IPA replaced Шаблон:Angbr IPA and Шаблон:Angbr IPA replaced Шаблон:Angbr IPA, both of which would not officially be approved until 1928.Шаблон:Sfnp Шаблон:Angbr IPA replaced Шаблон:Angbr IPA and Шаблон:Angbr was added for a devoiced Шаблон:IPAblink, but neither has appeared in any other IPA chart and the latter is not supported by Unicode. Also added were dedicated letters for the central vowels, Шаблон:Angbr IPA, which appeared again in Шаблон:Harvp and in the chart in Le Maître Phonétique from 1926 to 1927, though without the Council's approval.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp Of these, only Шаблон:Angbr IPA were approved in the 1928 revision, with a different value for Шаблон:Angbr IPA, until Шаблон:Angbr IPA were revived and Шаблон:Angbr IPA regained the 1921 value in 1993. The old convention of Шаблон:Angbr IPA was retained for where central vowels were not phonemically distinct. Шаблон:Angbr IPA were still for obscure or indeterminate vowels, as opposed to the others, which would indicate clear pronunciations.

The book also mentioned letters "already commonly used in special works", some of which had long been part of the IPA but others which "have not yet been definitively adopted":Шаблон:Sfnp

It also introduced several new suprasegmental specifications:Шаблон:Sfnp

It recommended the use of a circumflex for the Swedish grave accent, as in Шаблон:IPA ("the spirit").Шаблон:Sfnp It was mentioned that some authors prefer Шаблон:Angbr IPA in place of Шаблон:Angbr IPA. Aspiration was marked as Шаблон:Angbr IPA and stronger aspiration as Шаблон:Angbr IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp

The click letters Шаблон:Angbr IPA were conceived by Daniel Jones. In 1960, A. C. Gimson wrote to a colleague:

Paul Passy recognized the need for letters for the various clicks in the July–August 1914 number of Le Maître Phonétique and asked for suggestions. This number, however, was the last for some years because of the war. During this interval, Professor Daniel Jones himself invented the four letters, in consultation with Paul Passy and they were all four printed in the pamphlet L'Écriture Phonétique Internationale published in 1921. The letters were thus introduced in a somewhat unusual way, without the explicit consent of the whole Council of the Association. They were, however, generally accepted from then on, and, as you say, were used by Professor Doke in 1923. I have consulted Professor Jones in this matter, and he accepts responsibility for their invention, during the period of the First World War.Шаблон:Sfnp

Шаблон:Angbr IPA would be approved by the Council in 1928.Шаблон:Sfnp Шаблон:Angbr IPA would be included in all subsequent booklets,Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:SfnpШаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp but not in the single-page charts. They would be replaced with the Lepsius/Bleek letters in the 1989 Kiel revision.

The 1921 book was the first in the series to mention the word phoneme (phonème).Шаблон:Sfnp

1925 Copenhagen Conference and 1927 revision

In April 1925, 12 linguists led by Otto Jespersen, including IPA Secretary Daniel Jones, attended a conference in Copenhagen and proposed specifications for a standardized system of phonetic notation.Шаблон:Sfnp The proposals were largely dismissed by the members of the IPA Council.Шаблон:Sfnp Nonetheless, the following additions recommended by the Conference were approved in 1927:Шаблон:Sfnp

1928 revisions

In 1928, the following letters were adopted:Шаблон:Sfnp

The following letters, which had appeared in earlier editions, were repeated or formalized:Шаблон:Sfnp

Шаблон:Harvp also included Шаблон:Angbr IPA for a labiodental nasal, Шаблон:Angbr IPA for a dental or alveolar tap, Шаблон:Angbr IPA for a palatal ('velar') click, and the tonal notation system seen in Шаблон:Harvp. For the Swedish and Norwegian compound tones he recommended "any arbitrarily chosen mark", with the illustration Шаблон:IPA ("the spirit"). He used Шаблон:Angbr IPA in place of Шаблон:Angbr IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp Apart from Шаблон:Angbr IPA and Шаблон:Angbr IPA, these new specifications would be inherited in the subsequent charts and booklets. The diacritics for whispered, Шаблон:Angbr IPA, and for tense and lax, Шаблон:Angbr IPA, were no longer mentioned.

1932 chart

An updated chart appeared as a supplement to Le Maître Phonétique in 1932.Шаблон:Sfnp

Bi-labial Labio-
dental 		Dental and
Alveolar 		Retroflex Palato-
alveolar 		Alveolo-
palatal 		Palatal Velar Uvular Шаблон:Not a typo Glottal
rowspan="8" Шаблон:Vert header Plosive Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Nasal Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Lateral Fricative Шаблон:IPA
Lateral Non-fricative Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Rolled Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Flapped Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Fricative Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Frictionless Continuants
and Semi-vowels 		Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
rowspan="5" Шаблон:Vert header
Front Central Back
Close
 
 
 
 
Half-close
Half-open
Open

The vowels were now arranged in a right-angled trapezium as opposed to an isosceles trapezium, reflecting Daniel Jones's development of the Cardinal Vowel theory. A practically identical chart—with the exception of Шаблон:Angbr IPA—in German had appeared in Шаблон:Harvp. The substitution of Шаблон:Angbr IPA for Шаблон:Angbr IPA was approved in 1931.Шаблон:Sfnp

The accompanying notes read:

Шаблон:Smallcaps.—Palatalized consonants: Шаблон:IPA, etc. Velarized or pharyngealized consonants: Шаблон:IPA, etc. Ejective consonants (plosivesШаблон:Sic with simultaneous glottal stop): Шаблон:IPA, etc. Implosive voiced consonants: Шаблон:IPA, etc. Шаблон:IPA fricative trill. Шаблон:IPA (labialized Шаблон:IPA, or Шаблон:IPA). Шаблон:IPA (labialized Шаблон:IPA). Шаблон:IPA (clicks, Zulu c, q, x). Шаблон:IPA (a sound between Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA). Шаблон:IPA (voiceless Шаблон:IPA). Шаблон:IPA (lowered varieties of Шаблон:IPA). Шаблон:IPA (a variety of Шаблон:IPA). Шаблон:IPA (a vowel between Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA).

Affricates are normally represented by groups of two consonants (Шаблон:IPA, etc.), but, when necessary, ligatures are used (Шаблон:IPA, etc.), or the marks Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA, etc.). Шаблон:IPA may occasionally be used in place of Шаблон:IPA. Aspirated plosives: Шаблон:IPA, etc.

Шаблон:Sm.— Шаблон:IPA (full length). Шаблон:IPA (half length). Шаблон:IPA (stress, placed at the beginning of the stressed syllable). Шаблон:IPA (secondary stress). Шаблон:IPA (high level pitch); Шаблон:IPA (low level); Шаблон:IPA (high rising); Шаблон:IPA (low rising); Шаблон:IPA (high falling); Шаблон:IPA (low falling); Шаблон:IPA (rise-fall); Шаблон:IPA (fall-rise). See Écriture Phonétique Internationale, p. 9.

Шаблон:Sm.— Шаблон:IPA nasality. Шаблон:IPA breath (Шаблон:IPA = breathed Шаблон:IPA). Шаблон:IPA voice (Шаблон:IPA = Шаблон:IPA). Шаблон:IPA slight aspiration following Шаблон:IPA, etc. Шаблон:IPA specially close vowel (Шаблон:IPA = a very close Шаблон:IPA). Шаблон:IPA specially open vowel (Шаблон:IPA = a rather open Шаблон:IPA). Шаблон:IPA labialization (Шаблон:IPA = labialized Шаблон:IPA). Шаблон:IPA dental articulation (Шаблон:IPA = dental Шаблон:IPA). Шаблон:IPA palatalization (Шаблон:IPA = Шаблон:IPA). Шаблон:IPA tongue slightly raised. Шаблон:IPA tongue slightly lowered. Шаблон:IPA lips more rounded. Шаблон:IPA lips more spread. Central vowels Шаблон:IPA (= Шаблон:IPA), Шаблон:IPA (= Шаблон:IPA), Шаблон:IPA (= Шаблон:IPA), Шаблон:IPA (= Шаблон:IPA), Шаблон:IPA. Шаблон:IPA (e.g. Шаблон:IPA) syllabic consonant. Шаблон:IPA consonantal vowel. Шаблон:IPA variety of Шаблон:IPA resembling Шаблон:IPA, etc.Шаблон:Sfnp

1938 chart

A new chart appeared in 1938, with a few modifications. Шаблон:Angbr IPA was replaced by Шаблон:Angbr IPA, which was approved earlier in the year with the compromise Шаблон:Angbr also acknowledged as an alternative.Шаблон:Sfnp The use of tie bars Шаблон:Angbr IPA was allowed for synchronous articulation in addition to affricates, as in Шаблон:Angbr IPA for simultaneous Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, which was approved in 1937.Шаблон:Sfnp In the notes, the reference to Шаблон:Harvp, in regard to tonal notation was removed.Шаблон:Sfnp

1947 chart

A new chart appeared in 1947, reflecting minor developments up to the point. They were:Шаблон:Sfnp

The word "plosives" in the description of ejectives and the qualifier "slightly" in the definitions of Шаблон:Angbr IPA were removed.

1949 Principles

The 1949 Principles of the International Phonetic Association was the last installment in the series until it was superseded by the Handbook of the IPA in 1999.Шаблон:Sfnp It introduced some new specifications:Шаблон:Sfnp

None of these specifications were inherited in the subsequent charts. Шаблон:Angbr IPA was defined as an indicator of "medium stress".Шаблон:Sfnp

Шаблон:Angbr IPA was defined as a velar click, whereas previously it had been identified as the Khoekhoe click not found in Xhosa (that is, a palatal click).

In 1948, Шаблон:Angbr IPA and Шаблон:Angbr were approved as typographic alternatives, while it was also acknowledged that Шаблон:Angbr may be used for a velar plosive and Шаблон:Angbr IPA for an advanced one in narrow transcription of a language where it is preferable to distinguish the two, such as Russian.Шаблон:Sfnp The 1949 Principles recommended this alternation of the letters but did not mention their typographic equivalency in other languages.Шаблон:Sfnp Nevertheless, the recommendation was hardly adopted,Шаблон:Sfnp not even by Шаблон:Harvp, who used Шаблон:Angbr IPA and Шаблон:Angbr IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp

1951 chart

The 1951 chart added Шаблон:Angbr IPA as yet another alternative to an r-coloured Шаблон:IPA,Шаблон:Sfnp following its approval in 1950.Шаблон:Sfnp Conceived by John S. Kenyon, the letter was in itself a combination of Шаблон:Angbr IPA and the hook for retroflex consonants approved by the IPA in 1927. Since its introduction in 1935, the letter was widely adopted by American linguists and the IPA had been asked to recognize it as part of the alphabet.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp

1979 chart

In 1979, a revised chart appeared, incorporating the developments in the alphabet which were made earlier in the decade:Шаблон:Sfnp

Шаблон:Angbr IPA for a retroflex approximant was approved in 1973. On the same occasion, Шаблон:Angbr IPA, Шаблон:Angbr IPA, Шаблон:Angbr IPA, and Шаблон:Angbr IPA or Шаблон:Angbr IPA as alternatives for Шаблон:IPA were proposed but the votes were inconclusive. Diacritics Шаблон:Angbr IPA (subscript, not attached) for retroflexion, Шаблон:Angbr IPA for palatalization, and Шаблон:Angbr IPA for indicating non-fricative continuant were proposed but rejected.Шаблон:Sfnp

The following changes were approved in 1976:Шаблон:Sfnp

On the same occasion, the following letters and diacritics were removed because they had "fallen into disuse":Шаблон:Sfnp

On the other hand, Шаблон:Angbr IPA for the close-mid central unrounded vowel, Шаблон:Angbr IPA for the open-mid central rounded vowel, and Шаблон:Angbr IPA for the open central unrounded vowel were proposed but rejected.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp The proposal of Шаблон:Angbr IPA was based on Шаблон:Harvp.Шаблон:Sfnp Шаблон:Angbr IPA for the voiced palatal fricative and Шаблон:Angbr IPA for creaky voice were proposed but the votes were inconclusive.Шаблон:Sfnp

In the 1979 chart, Шаблон:Angbr IPA, previously defined as "lowered varieties of Шаблон:IPA", appeared slightly centered rather than simply midway between Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA as they did in the 1912 chart. Шаблон:Angbr IPA, the predecessors to Шаблон:Angbr IPA, were acknowledged as alternatives to Шаблон:Angbr IPA under the section "Other symbols". Шаблон:Angbr IPA appeared as the rounded counterpart to Шаблон:IPA rather than between Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA.

The name of the column "Dental and alveolar" was changed to "Dental, alveolar, or post-alveolar". "Pharyngeal", "trill", "tap or flap", and "approximant" replaced "Шаблон:Not a typo", "rolled", "flapped", and "frictionless continuants", respectively. Шаблон:Angbr IPA, which were listed twice in both the fricative and frictionless continuant rows in the previous charts, now appeared as an approximant and a fricative, respectively, while the line between the rows was erased, indicating certain fricative letters may represent approximants and vice versa, with the employment of the raised and lowered diacritics if necessary. Шаблон:Angbr IPA, previously defined as "voiceless Шаблон:IPA", was specified as a fricative. Шаблон:Angbr IPA remained listed twice in the fricative and approximant rows. Шаблон:Angbr IPA, previously defined merely as "a sound between Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA", was redefined as an alveolar lateral flap, in keeping with the use for which it had been originally approved, "a sound between l and d".

1989 Kiel Convention

Файл:IPA as of 1989.png
The IPA in 1989 (recreated from the 2005 chart; some glyphs may not be accurate)

By the 1980s, phonetic theories had developed so much since the inception of the alphabet that the framework of it had become outdated.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp To resolve this, at the initiative of IPA President Peter Ladefoged, approximately 120 members of the IPA gathered at a convention held in Kiel, West Germany, in August 1989, to discuss revisions of both the alphabet and the principles it is founded upon.Шаблон:Sfnp It was at this convention that it was decided that the Handbook of the IPA Шаблон:Harv would be written and published to supersede the 1949 Principles.Шаблон:Sfnp

In addition to the revisions of the alphabet, two workgroups were set up, one on computer coding of IPA characters and computer representation of individual languages, and the other on pathological speech and voice quality.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp The former group concluded that each IPA character should be assigned a three-digit number for computer coding known as IPA Number, which was published in Шаблон:Harvp. The latter devised a set of recommendations for the transcription of disordered speech based on the IPA known as the Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet or extIPA, which was published in 1990 and adopted by the International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association, which now maintains it, in 1994.Шаблон:Sfnp

A drastically renewed chart of the alphabet reflecting decisions made at the convention appeared later in the year. Additions were:Шаблон:Sfnp

Tone, which had been indicated with an iconic line preceding the syllable or above or below the vowel, was now written one of two ways: with a similar iconic line following the syllable and anchored to a vertical bar, as in Шаблон:Angbr IPA (Chao's tone letters), or with more abstract diacritics written over the vowel (acute = high, macron = mid, grave = low), which could be compounded with each other, as in Шаблон:Angbr IPA.

The palato-alveolar column was removed and Шаблон:Angbr IPA were listed alongside the postalveolars. Шаблон:Angbr IPA appeared at the same horizontal position as the other alveolars rather than slightly more back as did in the previous charts. Шаблон:Angbr IPA was specified as a trill rather than either a trill or flap. The alternative raised and lowered diacritics Шаблон:Angbr IPA were eliminated in favour of Шаблон:Angbr IPA, which could now be attached to consonants to denote fricative or approximant, as in Шаблон:Angbr IPA. Diacritics for relative articulation placed next to, rather than below, a letter, namely Шаблон:Angbr IPA, were no longer mentioned. The diacritic for no audible release Шаблон:Angbr IPA was finally mentioned in the chart.

Шаблон:Angbr IPA were eliminated in favour of Шаблон:Angbr IPA. The letter for the close-mid back unrounded vowel was revised from Шаблон:Angbr ("baby gamma"), with a flat top, to Шаблон:Angbr ("ram's horns"), with a rounded top, to better distinguish it from Шаблон:Angbr IPA, which represents a voiced velar fricative. Шаблон:Angbr IPA was revived in place of Шаблон:Angbr. Шаблон:Angbr IPA was no longer mentioned, and instead a right-hook diacritic Шаблон:Angbr IPA was added for rhoticity; the superscript rhotic diacritics were no longer mentioned.

Шаблон:Angbr IPA for palatalized Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:Angbr IPA for the alveolar fricative trill were withdrawn (now written Шаблон:Angbr IPA and Шаблон:Angbr IPA). The affricate ligatures were withdrawn. The tie bar below letters for affricates and doubly articulated consonants, as in Шаблон:Angbr IPA, was no longer mentioned. The practice of placing a superscript letter to indicate the resemblance to a sound, previously illustrated by Шаблон:Angbr IPA, was no longer explicitly recommended.

At the convention, proposals such as Шаблон:Angbr for a voiced labial–velar fricative, Шаблон:Angbr for a voiceless velar lateral fricative, Шаблон:Angbr IPA for a voiced velar lateral fricative, Шаблон:Angbr for a voiceless palatal lateral fricative, Шаблон:Angbr IPA for "the 'hissing-hussing' fricatives of some Caucasian languages", and Шаблон:Angbr IPA for an open central unrounded vowel were discussed but dismissed.Шаблон:Sfnp

New principles

The six principles set out in 1888 were replaced by a much longer text consisting of seven paragraphs.Шаблон:Sfnp The first two paragraphs established the alphabet's purpose, namely to be "a set of symbols for representing all the possible sounds of the world's languages" and "representing fine distinctions of sound quality, making the IPA well suited for use in all disciplines in which the representation of speech sounds is required".Шаблон:Sfnp The second paragraph also said, "Шаблон:IPA is a shorthand way of designating the intersection of the categories voiceless, bilabial, and plosive; Шаблон:IPA is the intersection of the categories voiced, bilabial, and nasal; and so on",Шаблон:Sfnp refining the previous, less clearly defined principle #2 with the application of the distinctive feature theory.Шаблон:Sfnp Discouragement of diacritics was relaxed, though recommending their use be limited: "(i) For denoting length, stress and pitch. (ii) For representing minute shades of sounds. (iii) When the introduction of a single, diacritic obviates the necessity for designing a number of new symbols (as, for instance, in the representation of nasalized vowels)".Шаблон:Sfnp The principles also adopted the recommendation of enclosing phonetic transcriptions in square brackets [ ] and phonemic ones in slashes / /,Шаблон:Sfnp a practice that emerged in the 1940s.Шаблон:Sfnp The principles were reprinted in the 1999 Handbook.Шаблон:Sfnp

1993 revision

Following the 1989 revision, a number of proposals for revisions appeared in the Journal of the IPA, which were submitted to the Council of the IPA. In 1993, the Council approved the following changes:Шаблон:Sfnp

  • Шаблон:Angbr IPA for the voiceless implosives were withdrawn.
  • The non-pulmonic consonants (ejectives and implosives) were removed from the main table and set up with the clicks in a separate section, with Шаблон:Angbr IPA acknowledged as an independent modifier for ejective (therefore allowing combinations absent in the chart).
  • It was noted that subdiacritics may be moved above a letter to avoid interference with a descender.
  • The central vowels of the 1921 chart were restored, bringing the total back to five: schwa plus open-mid Шаблон:Angbr IPA and Шаблон:Angbr IPA, and close-mid Шаблон:Angbr IPA and Шаблон:Angbr IPA.
  • The right half of the cell for pharyngeal plosives was shaded, indicating the impossibility of a voiced pharyngeal plosive.

On the same occasion, it was reaffirmed that Шаблон:Angbr IPA and Шаблон:Angbr are typographic alternatives.Шаблон:Sfnp

The revised chart was now portrait-oriented. Шаблон:Angbr IPA and Шаблон:Angbr IPA were moved to the centerline of the vowel chart, indicating that they are not necessarily unrounded. The word "voiced" was removed from the definition for Шаблон:Angbr IPA, now simply "epiglottal plosive". "Other symbols" and diacritics were slightly rearranged. The outer stroke of the letter for a bilabial click Шаблон:Angbr IPA was modified from a circle with a consistent width to the shape of uppercase O.Шаблон:Sfnp

1996 update

In 1996, it was announced that the form of the open-mid central rounded vowel in the 1993 chart, Шаблон:Angbr IPA, was a typographical error and should be changed to Шаблон:Angbr IPA, stating the latter was the form that "J. C. Catford had in mind when he proposed the central vowel changes ... in 1990", also citing Шаблон:Harvp and Шаблон:Harvp,Шаблон:Sfnp who had Шаблон:Angbr IPA.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp However, the letter Catford had proposed for the value in 1990 was in fact Шаблон:Angbr IPA (a barred Шаблон:Angbr IPA), with an alternative being Шаблон:Angbr IPA, but not Шаблон:Angbr IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp Errata for Шаблон:Harvp appeared in 1992, but the printed form was again Шаблон:Angbr IPA and the errata even acknowledged that Шаблон:Angbr IPA was included in Шаблон:Harvp, as pointed out by David Abercrombie.Шаблон:Sfnp

In the updated chart, which was published in the front matter of the 1999 Handbook of the IPA, the subsections were rearranged so that the left edge of the vowel chart appeared right beneath the palatal column, hinting at the palatal place of articulation for Шаблон:IPA, as did in all pre-1989 charts, though the space did not allow the back vowels to appear beneath the velars.Шаблон:Sfnp A tie bar placed below letters, as in Шаблон:Angbr IPA, was mentioned again. Шаблон:Angbr IPA was now attached to the preceding letter, as in Шаблон:Angbr IPA. A few illustrations in the chart were changed: Шаблон:Angbr IPA was added for rhoticity, and Шаблон:Angbr IPA were replaced with Шаблон:Angbr IPA. The examples of "high rising" and "low rising" tone contours were changed from Шаблон:Angbr IPA (4–5) and Шаблон:Angbr IPA (1–2) to Шаблон:Angbr IPA (3–5) and Шаблон:Angbr IPA (1–3), respectively. The word "etc." was dropped from the list of contours, though the 1999 Handbook would continue to use contours that did not appear on the chart.Шаблон:Sfnp

1999 Handbook

The 1999 Handbook of the International Phonetic Association was the first book outlining the specifications of the alphabet in 50 years, superseding the 1949 Principles of the IPA. It consisted of just over 200 pages, four times as long as the Principles. In addition to what was seen in the 1996 chart,Шаблон:Sfnp the book included Шаблон:Angbr IPA for mid central vowel release, Шаблон:Angbr IPA for voiceless dental fricative release, and Шаблон:Angbr IPA for voiceless velar fricative release as part of the official IPA in the "Computer coding of IPA symbols" section.Шаблон:Sfnp The section also included Шаблон:Angbr IPA for a voiced retroflex implosive, noting it was "not explicitly IPA approved".Шаблон:Sfnp The book also said Шаблон:Angbr IPA "might be used" for "a secondary reduction of the lip opening accompanied by neither protrusion nor velar constriction".Шаблон:Sfnp It abandoned the 1949 PrinciplesШаблон:' recommendation of alternating Шаблон:Angbr and Шаблон:Angbr IPA for ordinary and advanced velar plosives, and acknowledged both shapes as acceptable variants.Шаблон:Sfnp

21st-century developments

Файл:IPA chart (C)2005.pdf
The 2005 chart

In 2005, Шаблон:Angbr IPA was added for the labiodental flap.Шаблон:Sfnp

In 2011, it was proposed that Шаблон:Angbr IPA be added to represent the open central unrounded vowel, but this was declined by the Council the following year.Шаблон:Sfnp

In 2012, the IPA chart and its subparts were released under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License.Шаблон:Sfnp

In 2016, three versions of a revised chart dated 2015 were released online, each with the characters rendered in a different typeface (IPA Kiel/LS Uni developed by Linguist's Software, Doulos SIL, and DejaVu Sans).Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp No character was added or withdrawn, but some notes and the shapes of a few were slightly modified. In particular, Шаблон:Angbr IPA was replaced by Шаблон:Angbr IPA, with a continuous, slanted stroke, and the example of a "rising–falling" tone contour was changed from Шаблон:Angbr IPA (4–5–4) to Шаблон:Angbr IPA (3–4–3).Шаблон:Sfnp

In 2018, another slightly modified chart in different fonts was released, this time also in TeX TIPA Roman developed by Rei Fukui, which was selected as best representing the IPA symbol set by the Association's Alphabet, Charts and Fonts committee, established the previous year.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp The example of a "rising–falling" tone contour was again changed from Шаблон:Angbr IPA (3–4–3) to Шаблон:Angbr IPA (3–4–2).Шаблон:Sfnp

In 2020, another set of charts was released, with the only changes being minor adjustments in the layout, and Creative Commons icons replacing the copyright sign.Шаблон:Sfnp

Summary

Values that have been represented by different characters

Consonants
Value 1900 1904 1912 1921 1932 1938 1947 1979 1989 1993
Glottal stop Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Voiceless bilabial fricative Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Voiced bilabial fricative Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Voiced velar fricative Файл:G with open slanted tail and stroke.svg Файл:Latin small letter g with stroke - 1900 IPA symbol.svg Шаблон:IPA
Voiceless uvular fricative Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Voiceless pharyngeal fricative (or Arabic Шаблон:Lang) Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Voiced pharyngeal fricative (or Arabic Шаблон:Lang) Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Voiceless labial–velar fricative Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Voiced alveolar lateral fricative colspan="4" Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Файл:Lezh old.svg Шаблон:IPA
Voiced alveolar fricative trill colspan="2" Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA colspan="2" Шаблон:N/a
Retroflex consonants Шаблон:IPA, etc. Шаблон:IPA, etc. Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Bilabial click colspan="7" Шаблон:N/a Файл:Bull's eye circle.svg Файл:Bull's eye O.svg
Dental click colspan="3" Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Alveolar click colspan="3" Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Alveolar lateral click colspan="3" Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Palatal click colspan="3" Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:IPA
Vowels
Value 1900 1904 1912 1921 1932 1947 1979 1989 1993 1996
Close-mid back unrounded vowel Шаблон:IPA Файл:Latin letter small capital Gamma.svg Файл:Ram's horns.svg
Close central unrounded vowel Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Close central rounded vowel Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Close-mid central unrounded vowel Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA colspan="4" Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:IPA
Close-mid central rounded vowel Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA colspan="2" Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:IPA
Open-mid central unrounded vowel Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA colspan="4" Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:IPA
Open-mid central rounded vowel Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA colspan="4" Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Near-close (near-)front unrounded vowel Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Near-close (near-)back rounded vowel Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Modifiers and suprasegmentals
Value 1900 1904 1912 1921 1932 1947 1949 1951 1979 1989 1993 1996 2015 2018
Aspirated colspan="3" Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
More rounded Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Less rounded Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Advanced Шаблон:IPA colspan="3" Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Retracted Шаблон:IPA colspan="3" Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Raised (vowel) Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Raised (consonant) colspan="8" Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:IPA
Lowered (vowel) Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Lowered (consonant) colspan="8" Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:IPA
Syllabic Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Non-syllabic Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Rhoticity colspan="5" Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
R-coloured Шаблон:IPA colspan="5" Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Breathy voice colspan="6" Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:IPA
Labialized colspan="4" Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Palatalized colspan="2" Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Primary stress Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
High level colspan="3" Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Mid level colspan="3" Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:IPA colspan="5" Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:IPA
Low level colspan="3" Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
High rising colspan="3" Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Low rising colspan="3" Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Rising–falling colspan="3" Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Falling–rising colspan="3" Шаблон:N/a Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA

Characters that have been given different values

Character 1900 1904 1912 1921 1932 1947 1949 1979 1989 1993
Шаблон:IPA Voiced uvular trill Voiced uvular trill or flap Voiced uvular trill
Шаблон:IPA Voiceless pharyngeal fricative (or Arabic Шаблон:Lang) colspan="4" Шаблон:N/a Voiceless epiglottal fricative
Шаблон:IPA Voiced uvular fricative Voiced uvular fricative or approximant Voiced uvular fricative
Шаблон:IPA Voiced postalveolar fricative or approximant Postalveolar approximant Alveolar approximant
Шаблон:IPA Voiced bilabial fricative Labiodental approximant
Шаблон:IPA colspan="3" Шаблон:N/a A sound between Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA A sound between Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA Alveolar lateral flap
Шаблон:IPA Open-mid central unrounded vowel Open central unrounded vowel Centralized open front unrounded vowel
Шаблон:IPA Near-open central vowel (unroundedness implicit) Near-open central unrounded vowel Near-open central vowel
Шаблон:IPA Mid central vowel (unroundedness implicit) Mid central unrounded vowel Mid central vowel
Шаблон:IPA colspan="3" Шаблон:N/a Open-mid central unrounded vowel Variety of Шаблон:IPA Open-mid central unrounded vowel
Шаблон:IPA colspan="3" Шаблон:N/a Close-mid central rounded vowel Mid central rounded vowel Close-mid central rounded vowel
Шаблон:IPA Near-close front unrounded vowel colspan="2" Шаблон:N/a Near-close near-front unrounded vowel
Шаблон:IPA Near-close front rounded vowel Near-close near-front rounded vowel
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:N/a Near-close back rounded vowel Шаблон:N/a Near-close back rounded vowel colspan="2" Шаблон:N/a Near-close near-back rounded vowel
Шаблон:IPA Central Centralized
Шаблон:IPA Non-syllabic Extra-short
Шаблон:IPA Tense High rising High level
Шаблон:IPA Lax High falling Low level
Шаблон:IPA colspan="3" Шаблон:N/a High level Mid level
Шаблон:IPA colspan="3" Шаблон:N/a Fall-rise Rising
Шаблон:IPA colspan="3" Шаблон:N/a Rise-fall Falling
Шаблон:IPA Retroflex Шаблон:N/a Raised colspan="2" Шаблон:N/a

See also

Notes

Шаблон:Notelist

References

Шаблон:Reflist

Bibliography

Шаблон:Refbegin

Шаблон:Refend

Further reading

Шаблон:Refbegin

Шаблон:Refend

External links

Шаблон:IPA navigation

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  1. ↑ ʒ (turned ezh) is not supported by Unicode. It may be substituted with Шаблон:Angbr IPA (turned three).
  2. ↑ The 1904 English edition says that Шаблон:Angbr IPA is the Arabic and English voiced h -- its use for English, though Arabic has no such sound.
  3. ↑ The 1904 English edition describes these sounds as the "Circassian dental hiss". See [[Postalveolar consonant|Шаблон:IPA]] for details on these sounds, which do not currently have IPA support.
  4. ↑ Шаблон:Harvp, citing Шаблон:Harvp.
  5. ↑ The typographic form of Шаблон:Angbr IPA, which was now sized as a full letter, was a question mark Шаблон:Angbr IPA with the dot removed.
  6. ↑ Unicode supports Шаблон:Angbr and Шаблон:Angbr for 'r', but not the 'z'
  7. ↑ At some point, rotated Шаблон:Angbr of the 1957 chart was replaced with reversed (mirror-image) Шаблон:Angbr IPA of the Kiel convention.
Источник — http://wikihandbk.com/ruwiki/index.php?title=Английская_Википедия:History_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet&oldid=15259762