Английская Википедия:Homeric Greek
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Infobox language Homeric Greek is the form of the Greek language that was used in the Iliad, Odyssey, and Homeric Hymns. It is a literary dialect of Ancient Greek consisting mainly of Ionic, with some Aeolic forms, a few from Arcadocypriot, and a written form influenced by Attic.[1] It was later named Epic Greek because it was used as the language of epic poetry, typically in dactylic hexameter, by poets such as Hesiod and Theognis of Megara. Compositions in Epic Greek may date from as late as the 5th century CE, and it only fell out of use by the end of classical antiquity.
Main features
In the following description, only forms that differ from those of later Greek are discussed. Omitted forms can usually be predicted from patterns seen in Ionic Greek.
Phonology
Homeric Greek is like Ionic Greek, and unlike Classical Attic, in shifting almost all cases of long Шаблон:Lang to Шаблон:Lang.
Homeric | Attic | English |
---|---|---|
Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Troy (nominative singular) |
Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | an hour (nominative singular) |
Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | gates (dative plural) |
Exceptions include nouns like Шаблон:Lang ("a goddess"), and the genitive plural of first-declension nouns and the genitive singular of masculine first-declension nouns. For example Шаблон:Lang ("of goddesses"), and Шаблон:Lang ("of the son of Atreus").
Nouns
- First declension[2]
- The nominative singular of most feminine nouns ends in Шаблон:Lang, rather than long Шаблон:Lang, even after Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, and Шаблон:Lang (an Ionic feature): Шаблон:Lang for Шаблон:Lang. However, Шаблон:Lang and some names end in long Шаблон:Lang.
- Some masculine nouns have a nominative singular in short Шаблон:Lang rather than Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang): Шаблон:Lang for Attic Шаблон:Lang.
- The genitive singular of masculine nouns ends in Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang (rarely - only after vowels - Шаблон:Lang), rather than Шаблон:Lang: Шаблон:Lang for Attic Шаблон:Lang.[note 1]
- The genitive plural usually ends in Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang: Шаблон:Lang for Attic Шаблон:Lang.[note 2]
- The dative plural almost always ends in Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang: Шаблон:Lang for Attic Шаблон:Lang.
- Second declension
- Genitive singular: ends in Шаблон:Lang, as well as Шаблон:Lang. For example, Шаблон:Lang, as well as Шаблон:Lang.
- Genitive and dative dual: ends in Шаблон:Lang. Thus, Шаблон:Lang appears, rather than Шаблон:Lang.
- Dative plural: ends in Шаблон:Lang(ν) and Шаблон:Lang. For example, Шаблон:Lang, as well as Шаблон:Lang.
- Third declension
- Accusative singular: ends in Шаблон:Lang, as well as Шаблон:Lang. For example, Шаблон:Lang, as well as Шаблон:Lang.
- Dative plural: ends in Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang. For example, Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang.
- Homeric Greek lacks the quantitative metathesis present in later Greek (except in certain α-stem genitive plurals and certain masculine α-stem genitive singulars):
- Homeric Шаблон:Lang instead of Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang instead of Шаблон:Lang
- Шаблон:Lang instead of Шаблон:Lang
- Шаблон:Lang instead of Шаблон:Lang
- Шаблон:Lang instead of Шаблон:Lang
- Homeric Greek sometimes uses different endings:
- Шаблон:Lang alternates with Шаблон:Lang
A note on nouns:
- After short vowels, the reflex of Proto-Greek *ts can alternate between Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang in Homeric Greek. This can be of metrical use. For example, Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang are equivalent; Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang; Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang.
- A relic of the Proto-Greek instrumental case, the ending Шаблон:Lang(ν) (Шаблон:Lang(ν)) can be used for the dative singular and plural of nouns and adjectives (occasionally for the genitive singular and plural, as well). For example, Шаблон:Lang (...by force), Шаблон:Lang (...with tears), and Шаблон:Lang (...in the mountains).
Pronouns
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
Genitive | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
Dative | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | |
Accusative | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
Genitive | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang, ὔμμέων |
Dative | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | |
Accusative | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | — | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
Genitive | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
Dative | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | |
Accusative | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
- Third-person singular pronoun ("he, she, it") (the relative) or rarely singular article ("the"): Шаблон:Lang
- Third-person plural pronoun ("they") (the relative) or rarely plural article ("the"): nominative Шаблон:Lang, dative Шаблон:Lang.
Nominative | Шаблон:Lang |
---|---|
Accusative | Шаблон:Lang |
Genitive | Шаблон:Lang |
Dative | Шаблон:Lang |
Genitive | Шаблон:LangШаблон:Clarify |
Verbs
- Person endings
- Шаблон:Lang appears rather than Шаблон:Lang. For example, Шаблон:Lang for Шаблон:Lang in the third-person plural active.
- The third plural middle/passive often ends in Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang; for example, Шаблон:Lang is equivalent to Шаблон:Lang.
- Tenses
- Future: Generally remains uncontracted. For example, Шаблон:Lang appears instead of Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang instead of Шаблон:Lang.
- Present or imperfect: These tenses sometimes take iterative form with the suffix Шаблон:Lang before the ending. For example, Шаблон:Lang: 'they kept on running away'
- Aorist or imperfect: Both tenses can occasionally drop their augments. For example, Шаблон:Lang may appear instead of Шаблон:Lang, and Шаблон:Lang may appear instead of Шаблон:Lang.
- Homeric Greek does not have a historical present tense, but rather uses injunctives. Injunctives are replaced by the historical present in the post-Homeric writings of Thucydides and Herodotus.[3]
- Subjunctive
- The subjunctive appears with a short vowel. Thus, the form Шаблон:Lang, rather than Шаблон:Lang.
- The second singular middle subjunctive ending appears as both Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang.
- The third singular active subjunctive ends in Шаблон:Lang(ν). Thus, we see the form Шаблон:Lang, instead of Шаблон:Lang.
- Occasionally, the subjunctive is used in place of the future and in general remarks.
- Infinitive
- The infinitive appears with the endings Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, and Шаблон:Lang, in place of Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang. For example, Шаблон:Lang for Шаблон:Lang; Шаблон:Lang instead of Шаблон:Lang; Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, or Шаблон:Lang for Шаблон:Lang; and Шаблон:Lang in place of Шаблон:Lang.
- Contracted verbs
- In contracted verbs, where Attic employs an Шаблон:Lang, Homeric Greek will use Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang in place of Шаблон:Lang. For example, Attic Шаблон:Lang becomes Шаблон:Lang.
- Similarly, in places where Шаблон:Lang contracts to Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang contracts to Шаблон:Lang, Homeric Greek will show either Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang.
Adverbs
- Adverbial suffixes
- Шаблон:Lang conveys a sense of 'to where'; Шаблон:Lang 'to the war'
- Шаблон:Lang conveys a sense of 'how'; Шаблон:Lang 'with cries'
- Шаблон:Lang conveys a sense of 'from where'; Шаблон:Lang 'from above'
- Шаблон:Lang conveys a sense of 'where'; Шаблон:Lang 'on high'
Particles
- Шаблон:Lang 'so' or 'next' (transition)
- Шаблон:Lang 'and' (a general remark or a connective)
- Emphatics
- Шаблон:Lang 'indeed'
- Шаблон:Lang 'surely'
- Шаблон:Lang 'just' or 'even'
- Шаблон:Lang 'I tell you ...' (assertion)
Other features
In most circumstances, Homeric Greek did not have available a true definite article. Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang and their inflected forms do occur, but they are in origin and usually used as demonstrative pronouns.[4]
Vocabulary
Homer (in the Iliad and the Odyssey) uses about 9,000 words, of which 1,382 are proper names. Of the 7,618 remaining words 2,307 are hapax legomena.[5][6] According to classical scholar Clyde Pharr, "the Iliad has 1097 hapax legomena, while the Odyssey has 868".[7] Others have defined the term differently, however, and count as few as 303 in the Iliad and 191 in the Odyssey.[8]
Sample
The Iliad, lines 1–7
<poem>
Μῆνιν ἄειδε, θεά, Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος
οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί’ Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε’ ἔθηκε,
πολλὰς δ’ ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Ἄϊδι προΐαψεν
ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσιν
οἰωνοῖσί τε δαῖτα· Διὸς δ’ ἐτελείετο βουλή·
ἐξ οὗ δὴ τὰ πρῶτα διαστήτην ἐρίσαντε
Ἀτρεΐδης τε ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν καὶ δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς.
</poem>
Theodore Alois Buckley (1860):
Sing, O goddess, the destructive wrath of Achilles, son of Peleus, which brought countless woes upon the Greeks, and hurled many valiant souls of heroes down to Hades, and made themselves a prey to dogs and to all birds but the will of Jove was being accomplished, from the time when Atrides, king of men, and noble Achilles, first contending, were disunited.
Authors
- Homer
- Hesiod
- Theognis of Megara
- Apollonius Rhodius
- Quintus Smyrnaeus
- Nonnus
- Author(s) of the Homeric Hymns
Poets of the Epic Cycle
See also
Notes
References
Bibliography
- Pharr, Clyde. Homeric Greek: A Book for Beginners. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, new edition, 1959. Revised edition: John Wright, 1985. Шаблон:ISBN. First edition of 1920 in public domain.
- Шаблон:Cite book
Further reading
- Bakker, Egbert J., ed. 2010. A companion to the Ancient Greek language. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
- Christidis, Anastasios-Phoivos, ed. 2007. A history of Ancient Greek: From the beginnings to Late Antiquity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
- Colvin, Stephen C. 2007. A historical Greek reader: Mycenaean to the koiné. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Edwards, G. Patrick. 1971. The language of Hesiod in its traditional context. Oxford: Blackwell.
- Hackstein, Olav. 2010. "The Greek of epic." In A companion to the Ancient Greek language. Edited by Egbert J. Bakker, 401–23. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
- Horrocks, Geoffrey C. 1987. "The Ionian epic tradition: Was there an Aeolic phase in its development?" Minos 20–22: 269–94.
- ––––. 2010. Greek: A history of the language and its speakers. 2nd ed. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
- Janko, Richard. 1982. Homer, Hesiod, and the Hymns: Diachronic development in epic diction. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
- ––––. 1992. "The origins and evolution of the Epic diction." In The Iliad: A commentary. Vol. 4, Books 13–16. Edited by Richard Janko, 8–19. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
- Lord, Albert B. 1960. The singer of tales. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
- Nagy, Gregory. 1995. "An evolutionary model for the making of Homeric poetry: Comparative perspectives." In The ages of Homer. Edited by Jane Burr Carter and Sarah Morris, 163–79. Austin: University of Texas Press.
- Palmer, Leonard R. 1980. The Greek language. London: Faber & Faber.
- Parry, Milman. 1971. The making of Homeric verse: The collected papers of Milman Parry. Edited by Adam Parry. Oxford: Clarendon.
- Reece, Steve. 2009. Homer's Winged Words: the Evolution of Early Greek Epic Diction in the Light of Oral Theory. Amsterdam: Brill.
- West, Martin L. 1988. "The rise of the Greek epic." Journal of Hellenic Studies 108: 151–72.
Шаблон:Ancient Greece topics Шаблон:Greek language Шаблон:Greek language periods Шаблон:Authority control
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Goodwin, William W. (1879). A Greek Grammar (pp 204). St Martin's Press.
- ↑ The Iliad: A Commentary: Volume 5, Books 17-20, Geoffrey Stephen Kirk, Mark W. Edwards, Cambridge University Press, 1991, Шаблон:ISBN p53, footnote 72
- ↑ Google preview
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Reece, Steve. "Hapax Legomena," in Margalit Finkelberg (ed.), Homeric Encyclopedia (Oxford: Blackwell, 2011) 330-331. Hapax Legomena in Homer
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