Английская Википедия:Homosexuality in the militaries of ancient Greece
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Primary sources Homosexuality in the militaries of ancient Greece was a significant aspect across the ancient Greek city-states, ranging from being a core part of military life to being an accepted practice of some individual soldiers. It was regarded as contributing to morale.[1] Although the primary example is the Sacred Band of Thebes, a unit said to have been formed of same-sex couples, the Spartan tradition of military heroism has also been explained in light of strong emotional bonds resulting from homosexual relationships.[2] Various ancient Greek sources record incidents of courage in battle and interpret them as motivated by homoerotic bonds.
Philosophical discourses
Some Greek philosophers wrote on the subject of homosexuality in the military. In Plato's Symposium, the interlocutor Phaedrus commented on the power of male sexual relationships to improve bravery in the military:[3]
However, the Symposium is a dialectical exploration of the nature of true love, in which Phaedrus' views are soon found to be inadequate compared to the transcendent vision of Socrates, who:
Xenophon, while not criticizing the relationships themselves, ridiculed militaries that made them the sole basis of unit formation:
Шаблон:BlockquoteNevertheless, Xenophon's views are sympathetic to the idea that the relationship between erastes and eromenos in the military encourages soldiers to be brave, as he thought that the eromenos would feel particularly shameful if his erastes knew he acted in a cowardly manner during battle.[4]
Social aspects
According to tradition, the Greeks structured military units along tribal lines, a practice attributed to Nestor in the Homeric epics. The Theban military commander Pammenes, however, is supposed to have advocated military organization based on pairs of lovers:[5]
One such example took place during the Lelantine War between the Eretrians and the Chalcidians. In a decisive battle the Chalcidians called for the aid of a warrior named Cleomachus. Cleomachus answered their request and brought his lover along with him. He charged against the Eretrians and brought the Chalcidians to victory at the cost of his own life. It was said he was inspired with love during the battle. Afterwards, the Chalcidians erected a tomb for him in their marketplace and reversed their negative view of military homosexuality and began to honor it.[6] Aristotle attributed a popular local song to the event:[7]
The importance of these relationships in military formation was not without controversy. According to Xenophon, the Spartans abhorred the thought of using the relationships as the basis of unit formation for placing too much significance on sexuality rather than talent. This was due to their founder Lycurgus who attacked lusts on physical beauty regarding it as shameful. Xenophon asserted that in some city-states the lovers would not even have conversations with one another. He said this type of behavior was horrible because it was entirely based on physical attractions:[8]
Nonetheless, city states that employed the practice in determining military formation enjoyed some success. The Thebans had one such regiment as the core of their entire army. They attributed this group called the Sacred Band of Thebes for making Thebes the most powerful city-state for a generation until its fall to Philip II of Macedon. Philip II of Macedon was so impressed with their bravery during the battle he erected a monument that still stands today on their gravesite. He also gave a harsh criticism of the Spartan views of the band:[9]
One of the prominent Greek military figures enjoying such a relationship was Epaminondas, considered the greatest warrior-statesmen of ancient Thebes by many, including the Roman historian Diodorus Siculus. He had two male lovers: Asopichus and Caphisodorus, the latter died with him at Mantineia in battle. They were buried together, something usually reserved for a husband and wife in Greek society. Another pair of warrior-lovers—Harmodius and Aristogeiton—credited with the downfall of tyranny in Athens and the rise of democracy became the emblem of the city.
The Roman Greek author Polyaeneus writes on the bravery of the Sacred Band of Thebes which he attributes to their shared passionate love for each other:[10]
Aside from a viewpoint of homosexual bonds as conducive to bravery, these relations are thought to have formed for a number of other reasons. Between some soldiers, who were often away from home and their wives, who with few exceptions could not follow their husbands on campaign, same-sex relations served as one of many outlets to satisfy their sexual desires.[11] Indeed, marriage was not seen as the relation which would necessarily fulfill erotic desires. In particular for men, though they were expected to marry a woman, it was normal to engage in extramarital sexual relations.[12]
Homosexual attraction sometimes existed in the form of pederasty, which influenced ancient Greek and especially Spartan military practices.[13] This usually consisted in romantic relations and mentoring by adult men with male youths. Pederastic relations are thought to have played some role with Sparta’s overarching “contest-system” or the agoge, which aimed to shape male Spartans into soldiers.[14]
The Spartan general Anaxibius is described as having died fighting with a youth he loved by his side, though the origin or social status of this youth is unclear as they are not described as a soldier. This relationship may have been an uncharacteristic extension of pederastic feeling to a youth who was not necessarily Spartan and possibly a slave, considering how they were accompanying rather than fighting alongside Anaxibius.[11][15]
See also
References
- Gay Warriors, by Burg, B. R., et al.; New York: New York University Press, 2002. Шаблон:ISBN.
- Homosexuality and Civilization, by Crompton, Louis, et al.; Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2003. Шаблон:ISBN.
Further reading
- Daniel Ogden, "Homosexuality and Warfare in Ancient Greece," in Battle in Antiquity (Classical Press of Wales, 2009), pp. 107–68.
External links
Шаблон:Sexual orientation and gender identity in the military Шаблон:LGBT history
- ↑ Victor Davis Hanson, The Western Way of War: Infantry Battle in Classical Greece (University of California Press, 1994, 2009), p. 124.
- ↑ Hanson, The Western Way of War, p. 124.
- ↑ Plato, Symposium 178e–179a.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Plutarch, Pelopidas 18.2; discussed by K.J. Dover, Greek Homosexuality (Harvard University Press, 1978, 1989), p. 192, and Louis Crompton, Homosexuality and Civilization (Harvard University Press, 2003), p. 74.
- ↑ Eva Cantarella, Bisexuality in the Ancient World (Yale University Press, 1992, 2002, originally published 1988 in Italian), p. 71.
- ↑ Artistotle, Eroticus fr. 98 Rose (= Plutarch, Amatorius 760f), quoted at Cantarella p. 71 and Crompton p. 10 from the translation of F.C. Babbit, Plutarch: Moralia, vol. 9. Loeb Classical Library no. 425 (London, repr. 1961) p. 377.
- ↑ Xenophon, Spartan Constitution 10.3–4.
- ↑ Plutarch, Pelopidas 18.4.
- ↑ Polyaenus, Stratagems 2.5
- ↑ 11,0 11,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
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