Английская Википедия:Hungarian prehistory

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:For Шаблон:Good article Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:History of Hungary Hungarian prehistory (Шаблон:Lang-hu) spans the period of history of the Hungarian people, or Magyars, which started with the separation of the Hungarian language from other Finno-Ugric or Ugric languages around 800 BC, and ended with the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin around 895 AD. Based on the earliest records of the Magyars in Byzantine, Western European, and Hungarian chronicles, scholars considered them for centuries to have been the descendants of the ancient Scythians and Huns. This historiographical tradition disappeared from mainstream history after the realization of similarities between the Hungarian language and the Uralic languages in the late 18th century. Thereafter, linguistics became the principal source of the study of the Hungarians' ethnogenesis. In addition, chronicles written between the 9th and 15th centuries, the results of archaeological research and folklore analogies provide information on the Magyars' early history.

Study of pollen in fossils based on cognate words for certain treesШаблон:Spaced ndashincluding larch and elmШаблон:Spaced ndashin the daughter languages suggests the speakers of the Proto-Uralic language lived in the wider region of the Ural Mountains, which were inhabited by scattered groups of Neolithic hunter-gatherers in the 4th millennium BC. They spread over vast territories, which caused the development of a separate Proto-Finno-Ugric language by the end of the millennium. Linguistic studies and archaeological research evidence that those who spoke this language lived in pit-houses and used decorated clay vessels. The expansion of marshlands after around 2600 BC caused new migrations. No scholarly consensus on the Urheimat, or original homeland, of the Ugric peoples exists: they lived either in the region of the Tobol River or along the Kama River and the upper courses of the Volga River around 2000 BC. They lived in settled communities, cultivated millet, wheat, and other crops, and bred animalsШаблон:Spaced ndashespecially horses, cattle, and pigs. Loan words connected to animal husbandry from Proto-Iranian show that they had close contacts with their neighbors. The southernmost Ugric groups adopted a nomadic way of life by around 1000 BC, because of the northward expansion of the steppes.

The development of the Hungarian language started around 800 BC with the withdrawal of the grasslands and the parallel southward migration of the nomadic Ugric groups. The history of the ancient Magyars during the next thousand years is uncertain; they lived in the steppes but the location of their Urheimat is subject to scholarly debates. According to one theory, they initially lived east of the Urals and migrated west to "Magna Hungaria" by 600 AD at the latest. Other scholars say Magna Hungaria was the Magyars' original homeland, from where they moved either to the region of the Don River or towards the Kuban River before the 830s AD. Hundreds of loan words adopted from Oghuric Turkic languages prove the Magyars were closely connected to Turkic peoples. Byzantine and Muslim authors regarded them as a Turkic people in the 9th and 10th centuries.

An alliance between the Magyars and the Bulgarians in the late 830s was the first historical event that was recorded with certainty in connection with the Magyars. According to the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, the Magyars lived in Levedia in the vicinity of the Khazar Khaganate in the early 9th century and supported the Khazars in their wars "for three years". The Magyars were organized into tribes, each headed by their own "voivodes", or military leaders. After a Pecheneg invasion against Levedia, a group of Magyars crossed the Caucasus Mountains and settled in the lands south of the mountains, but the majority of the people fled to the steppes north of the Black Sea. From their new homeland, which was known as Etelköz, the Magyars controlled the lands between the Lower Danube and the Don River in the 870s. The confederation of their seven tribes was led by two supreme chiefs, the kende and the gyula. The KabarsШаблон:Spaced ndasha group of rebellious subjects of the Khazar turksШаблон:Spaced ndashjoined the Magyars in Etelköz. The Magyars regularly invaded the neighboring Slavic tribes, forcing them to pay a tribute and seizing prisoners to be sold to the Byzantines. Taking advantage of the wars between Bulgaria, East Francia, and Moravia, they invaded Central Europe at least four times between 861 and 894. A new Pecheneg invasion compelled the Magyars to leave Etelköz, cross the Carpathian Mountains, and settle in the Carpathian Basin around 895.

Ethnonyms

The Hungarians were mentioned under various ethnic names in Arabic, Byzantine, Slavic, and Western European sources in the 9th and 10th centuries.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Arabic scholars referred to them as Magyars, Bashkirs, or Turks; Byzantine authors mentioned them as Huns, Ungrs, Turks, or Savards; Slavic sources used the ethnonyms Ugr or Peon, and Western European authors wrote of Hungrs, Pannons, Avars, Huns, Turks, and Agaren.Шаблон:Sfn According to the linguist Gyula Németh, the multiple ethnonymsШаблон:Spaced ndashespecially Ungr, Savard, and TurkШаблон:Spaced ndashreflect that the Magyars had been integrated in various empires of the Eurasian steppesШаблон:Spaced ndashthe tribal confederations of the Onogurs and of the Sabirs, and the GöktürksШаблон:Spaced ndashbefore gaining their independence.Шаблон:Sfn The designation Bashkirs likely comes from proximity to the Turkic-speaking Bashkirs, a group which still today remains in the southern Urals.

Ibn Rusta was the first to record a variant of the Hungarians' self-designation; (al-Madjghariyya).Шаблон:Sfn According to a scholarly theory, the ethnonym "Magyar" is a composite word.Шаблон:Sfn The first part of the word (magy-) is said to have been connected to several recorded or hypothetical words, including the Mansi's self-designation (māńśi) and a reconstructed Ugric word for man (*mańća).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The second part (-er or -ar) may have developed from a reconstructed Finno-Ugrian word for man or boy (*irkä) or from a Turkic word with a similar meaning (eri or iri).Шаблон:Sfn Alan W. Ertl writes that the ethnonym was initially the name of a smaller group, the Megyer tribe; it developed into an ethnonym because Megyer was the most powerful tribe within the people.Шаблон:Sfn Most scholars agree that the Hungarian exonym and its variants were derived from the Onogurs' name.Шаблон:Sfn This form started spreading in Europe with Slavic mediation.Шаблон:Sfn

Formation of the Magyar people

Before the separation of the Hungarian language (before Шаблон:Circa 800 BC)

A red figure painted on the rock

Cave painting in the Ignateva Cave in the Ural Mountains

Hungarian has traditionally been classified as an Ugric language within the family of Uralic languages, but alternative views exist.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn For instance, linguist Tapani Salminen rejects the existence of a Proto-Ugric language, saying Hungarian was a member of an "areal genetic unit" that also included Permic languages. Paleolinguistic research suggests the speakers of the Proto-Uralic language lived in a territory where four treesШаблон:Spaced ndashlarch, silver fir, spruce, and elmШаблон:Spaced ndashgrew together.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The study of pollen in fossils shows these trees could be found on both sides of the Ural Mountains along the rivers Ob, Pechora, and Kama in the 4th millennium BC.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The land between the Urals and the Kama was sparsely inhabited during this period.Шаблон:Sfn From around 3600 BC, the Neolithic material culture of the wider region of the Urals spread over vast territories to the west and east.Шаблон:Sfn Regional variants emerged, showing the appearance of groups of people who had no close contact with each other.Шаблон:Sfn

About 1000 basic words of the Hungarian languageШаблон:Spaced ndashincluding the names of the seasons and natural phenomena, and the most frequently used verbsШаблон:Spaced ndashhad cognates in other Finno-Ugric languages, suggesting the temporary existence of a Proto-Finno-Ugric language.Шаблон:Sfn Between around 2600 and 2100 BC, climatic changes caused the spread of swamps on both sides of the Urals, forcing groups of inhabitants to leave their homelands.Шаблон:Sfn The Finno-Ugric linguistic unity disappeared and new languages emerged around 2000 BC.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Whether the groups speaking the language from which Hungarian emerged lived to the east or to the west of the Urals in this period is debated by historians.Шаблон:Sfn

Further climate changes occurring between 1300 and 1000 BC caused the northward expansion of the steppes by about Шаблон:Convert, compelling the southernmost Ugric groups to adopt a nomadic lifestyle.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Around 800 BC, the climate again changed with the beginning of a wetter period, forcing the nomadic Ugric groups to start a southward migration, following the grasslands.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Their movement separated them from the northern Ugric groups, which gave rise to the development of the language from which modern Hungarian emerged.Шаблон:Sfn According to historian László Kontler, the concept of the "sky-high tree" and some other elements of Hungarian folklore seem to have been inherited from the period of the Finno-Ugric unity.Шаблон:Sfn The melodies of the most common Hungarian funeral songs show similarities to tunes of Khanty epic songs.Шаблон:Sfn

Original homeland (Шаблон:Circa 800 BCШаблон:Spaced ndashbefore 600 AD)

A map depicting Central and Eastern Europe and two possible routes of the Magyars' migrations towards the Carpathian Basin

A map depicting the theories of the Magyars' proposed Urheimats and their migrations

The stag and the eagle, which are popular motifs of 10th-century Magyar art, have close analogies in Scythian art.Шаблон:Sfn The Scythians, Sarmatians, and other peoples who spoke Indo-Iranian languages dominated the Eurasian steppes between around 800 BC and 350 AD.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn During this period, all ethnic groups in the steppes were nomads with almost identical material cultures, for which the certain identification of the Magyars is impossible.Шаблон:Sfn Consequently, the exact location of their original homeland is subject to scholarly debates.Шаблон:Sfn Róna-Tas says the development of Hungarian started in the region of the rivers Kama and Volga, west of the Urals.Шаблон:Sfn Archaeologist István Fodor writes that the original homeland lay to the east of the Urals.Шаблон:Sfn He says that some features of the tumuli erected at Chelyabinsk in the 4th century BC, including the northward orientation of the heads of the deceased and the geometric motifs on the clay vessels put in the graves, are similar to older burials that he attributes to Ugric peoples.Шаблон:Sfn

Migrations

Early westward migrations (before 600 ADШаблон:Spaced ndashШаблон:Circa 750 or 830 AD)

A map depicting Central and Eastern Europe and a possible route of the Magyars' migrations towards the Carpathian Basin

A map depicting Péter Veres's theory of the Magyars' Urheimat and of their migrations, including their staying in the region of the Kuban River

In the 1230s, Friar Julian went to search for the Magyars' legendary homeland Magna Hungaria after reading about it and a group of Magyars who had remained there in a Hungarian chronicle.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn He met a Hungarian-speaking group "beside the great Etil river" (the Volga or the Kama) in the land of the Volga Bulgars, in or in the wider region of present-day Bashkortostan in Eastern Europe.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Whether Magna Hungaria was the original homeland of the Magyars, or whether the Magyars' ancestors settled in Magna Hungaria after their migration to Europe from their Western Siberian original homeland is still subject to scholarly debates.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn According to a third scholarly theory, Magna Hungaria was neither the Magyars' original homeland nor their first homeland in Europe. Instead, the ancestors of the Eastern Magyars whom Friar Julian met had moved to Magna Hungaria from the south.Шаблон:Sfn

According to a scholarly theory, the name of at least one Magyar tribe, Gyarmat, is connected to the name of a Bashkir group, Yurmatï.Шаблон:Sfn Specific burial ritesШаблон:Spaced ndashthe use of death masks and the placing of parts of horses into the gravesШаблон:Spaced ndashfeaturing a 9th- or 10th-century cemetery at the confluence of the Volga and Kama near present-day Bolshie Tigany in Bashkortostan are also evidenced among the Magyars who lived in the Carpathian Basin in the 10th century.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Most specialists say that the cemetery at Bolshie Tigany was used by Magyars who either remained in Magna Hungaria when other Magyar groups left the territory, or who moved there from other regions which were inhabited by the Magyars during their migrations.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

If the Magyars' original homeland was situated in Western Siberia, instead of being identical with Magna Hungaria, their ancestors moved from Western Siberia to Eastern Europe.Шаблон:Sfn This must have happened between 500 BC and 700 AD, because there were several major movements of peoples across the steppes during this period.Шаблон:Sfn The "Prohorovo culture" spread towards modern-day Bashkortostan around 400 BC.Шаблон:Sfn The westward migration of the Huns forced many groups of people of Western Siberia to depart for Europe between about 350 and 400 AD.Шаблон:Sfn The Avars' attack against the Sabirs in Siberia set in motion a number of migrations in the 460s.Шаблон:Sfn Between around 550 and 600, the migration of the Avars towards Europe compelled many nomadic groups to move.Шаблон:Sfn

The arrival of the Huns ended the dominance of Iranian peoples in the Eurasian steppes.Шаблон:Sfn Thereafter the Sabirs, Avars, Onoghurs, Khazars, and other Turkic peoples controlled the grasslands of Eastern Europe for centuries.Шаблон:Sfn Gardizi described the Magyars as "a branch of the Turks"; Leo the Wise and Constantine Porphyrogenitus called them Turks.Шаблон:Sfn About 450 Hungarian words were borrowed from Turkic languages before around 900.Шаблон:Sfn The oldest layer of Hungarian folk songs show similarities to Chuvash songs.Шаблон:Sfn These facts show the Magyars were closely connected to the Turks while they stayed in the Pontic steppes.Шаблон:Sfn

Gyula Németh, András Róna-Tas and other scholars write that for centuries, the Magyars lived around the Kuban River, to the north of the Caucasus Mountains.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn They say it was there that the Magyars adopted the Turkic terminology of viticulture, including bor ("wine") and seprő ("dregs"), and the Turkic names of cornel (som), grapes (szőlő) and some other fruits.Шаблон:Sfn According to these scholars, the Hungarian words of Alanic originШаблон:Spaced ndashincluding asszony ("lady", originally "noble or royal lady")Шаблон:Spaced ndashwere also borrowed in the same region.Шаблон:Sfn

Шаблон:AnchorLevedia (Шаблон:Circa 750 or 830Шаблон:Spaced ndashШаблон:Circa 850)

Шаблон:Infobox former country The Khazar Khaganate was the dominant power in the steppes between the rivers Dnieper and Volga after around 650.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Archaeological finds show that the Khagans controlled a multi-ethnic empire.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The "Saltovo-Mayaki culture", which flourished in the same region around 750 and 900, had at least seven variants.Шаблон:Sfn In the Hungarian chronicles, the legend of the wondrous hind seems to have preserved the memory of the Magyars' "close symbiosis, intermarriages, and incipient fusion" with various ethnic groupsШаблон:Spaced ndashAlans, Bulgars, and OnogursШаблон:Spaced ndashof this large region.Шаблон:Sfn

Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus wrote that the Magyars "had of old their dwelling next to Chazaria, in the place called Levedia," adding that "a river Chidmas, also called Chingilous" ran through this territory.Шаблон:Sfn The identification of the (one or two) rivers is uncertain.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Porphyrogenitus associated Levedia with the whole territory dominated by the Magyars, but most modern historians agree that he only described a smaller region situated on the Don River.Шаблон:Sfn The period when the Magyars settled in Levedia is also uncertain; this happened either before 750 (István Fodor) or around 830 (Gyula Kristó).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Porphyrogenitus said that the Magyars had been named "Sabartoi asphaloi", or "steadfast Savarts", while staying in Levedia.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Róna-Tas says the ethnonym is an invented term with no historical credibility.Шаблон:Sfn Based on the same denomination, Károly Czeglédy, Dezső Dümmerth, Victor Spinei, and other historians associated the Magyars either with the late 6th-century Sabirs or with the Suvar tribe of the Volga Bulgars.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Porphyrogenitus wrote that the Magyars "lived together with the Chazars for three years, and fought in alliance with the Chazars in all their wars", which suggests that the Magyars were subjugated to the Khazar Khagan, according to a scholarly view.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn On the other hand, historian György Szabados says, the emperor's words prove the equal position of the Magyars and the Khazars, instead of the Magyars' subjugation to the Khagan.Шаблон:Sfn Although the emperor said that the Magyars' cohabitation with the Khazars lasted only for three years, modern historians tend to propose a longer period (20, 30, 100, 150, 200 or even 300 years).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

According to a memorial stone erected in or before 831, a Bulgarian military commander named Okorsis drowned in the Dnieper during a military campaign.Шаблон:Sfn Florin Curta says this inscription may be the Шаблон:" 'first clue' to the upheaval on the steppes created by the migration of the Magyars into the lands between the Dnieper and the Danube".Шаблон:Sfn The earliest certainly identifiable events of the Magyars' history occurred in the 830s.Шаблон:Sfn The Bulgarians hired them to fight against their Byzantine prisoners, who rebelled and tried to return to Macedonia in the late 830s, but the Byzantines routed them on the banks on the Lower Danube.Шаблон:Sfn According to the Annals of St. Bertin, Rus' envoys who visited Constantinople in 839 could only return to their homeland through the Carolingian Empire because "the route by which they had reached Constantinople had taken them through primitive tribes that were very fierce and savage"; Curta and Kristó identify those tribes with the Magyars.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ibn Rusta wrote that the Khazars "used to be protected from attack by the Magyars and other neighboring peoples" by a ditch.Шаблон:Sfn According to a scholarly theory, Ibn Rusta's report shows that the Khazar fort at Sarkel, which was built in the 830s, was one of the forts protecting the Khazars against the Magyars.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Seven armed men, one of the wearing a shield depicting a bird of prey

The "seven captains" of the Magyars depicted in the Illuminated Chronicle

According to Porphyrogenitus, In Levedia, the Magyars "were seven clans, but they had never had over them a prince either native or foreign, but there were among them 'voivodesШаблон:' ", or chiefs.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Although the exact meaning of the term the emperor used (genea) cannot be exactly determined, scholars have traditionally considered the Magyar "clans" or "tribes" as ethnic and territorial units.Шаблон:Sfn In the Hungarian chronicles, references to "seven leading persons" or "seven captains" denote the existence of seven Magyar tribes.Шаблон:Sfn

Porphyrogenitus said the tribes did not "obey their own particular [voivodes], but [had] a joint agreement to fight together with all earnestness and zeal ... wheresoever war breaks out", suggesting the tribal chiefs were military rather than political leaders.Шаблон:Sfn According to Kristó, the emperor's report also shows the tribal confederation was not a "solid political formation with strong cohesion" in the early 9th century.Шаблон:Sfn The Gesta Hungarorum referred to the seven Magyar chiefs as "Hetumoger", or "Seven Magyars".Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Similar ethnonymsШаблон:Spaced ndashincluding Toquz Oghuz ("Nine Oghuzes") and Onogur ("Ten Ogurs")Шаблон:Spaced ndashsuggest the Gesta preserved the name of the confederation of the Magyar tribes.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn According to Porphyrogenitus, Levedia was named after Levedi, one of the Magyar voivodes.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn During Levedi's life, the Kangars, a distinct group within the Pechenegs' tribal confederation whom the Khazars had expelled from their homeland, invaded Levedia and forced the Magyars to cede the territory.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn A Magyar group fled across the Caucasus Mountains as far as Persia.Шаблон:Sfn However, the masses departed for the West and settled in a region called Etelköz.Шаблон:Sfn Most historians agree the Magyars' forced exodus from Levedia occurred around 850.Шаблон:Sfn

Шаблон:AnchorEtelköz (Шаблон:Circa 850Шаблон:Spaced ndashШаблон:Circa 895)

Constantine Porphyrogenitus identified Etelköz (actually Ἀτελκούζου from Ἐτὲλ and Κουζοῦ) with the lands where the rivers "Barouch", "Koubou", "Troullos", "Broutos", and "Seretos" run.Шаблон:Sfn The identification of the last three rivers with the Dniester, the Prut, and the Siret is without debate, but the traditional identification of the Barouch with the Dnieper and the Koubou with the Southern Bug is disputed by Spinei.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Al-Jayhani wrote that the Magyars' territory was located between two rivers named "tl" and "dwb" in the 870s.Шаблон:Sfn According to modern scholars, tl may refer to the Volga, the Don, or the Dnieper; dwb is identified as the Danube.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn According to the Gesta Hungarorum, the Magyars lived in "Scythia" or "Dentumoger"; the latter name, which refers to the Don River, suggests the Magyars inhabited the eastern regions of the Pontic steppes, according to Spinei.Шаблон:Sfn János Harmatta infers that Dentu (reconstructed as Dentü, Шаблон:IPA-hu) was the Proto-Hungarian name of the river.Шаблон:Sfn

An armed men, wearing a sword and a shield depicting a bird of prey

Álmos depicted in the Illuminated Chronicle: he was the first head of the federation of the Magyar tribes, according to the Hungarian chronicles

The Khazar Khagan sent his envoys to the Magyars shortly after they fled from Levedia and settled in Etelköz, according to Porphyrogenitus. The Khagan invited Levedi to a meeting, proposing to make Levedi the supreme head of the confederation of the Magyar tribes in exchange for the acceptance of his suzerainty.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Instead of accepting the offer, Levedi suggested the new rank should be offered to another voivode, Álmos, or the latter's son, Árpád.Шаблон:Sfn The Khagan accepted Levedi's proposal and upon his demand the Magyar chiefs proclaimed Árpád their head.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn According to Kristó and Spinei, Porphyrogenitus' report preserved the memory of the creation of a central office within the federation of the Magyar tribes.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Róna-Tas says the story relates only a "change of dynasty"; the fall of Levedi's family and the emergence of the Árpád dynasty.Шаблон:Sfn In contrast with Porphyrogenitus's story, the Gesta Hungarorum says it was not Árpád, but his father who was elected the first supreme prince of the Magyars.Шаблон:Sfn

According to Muslim scholars, the Magyars had two supreme leaders, the kende and the gyula, the latter being their ruler in the 870s.Шаблон:Sfn Their report implies the Khagan granted a Khazar title to the head of the federation of the Magyar tribes; Ibn Fadlan recorded that the third Khazar dignitary was styled kündür in the 920s.Шаблон:Sfn The Muslim scholar's report also implies the Magyars adopted the Khazar system of "dual kingship", whereby supreme power was divided between a sacred ruler (the kende) and a military leader (the gyula).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Porphyrogenitus wrote that the KabarsШаблон:Spaced ndasha group of Khazars who rebelled against the KhaganШаблон:Spaced ndashjoined the Magyars in Etelköz at an unspecified time,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn suggesting that the Magyars had got rid of the Khagan's suzerainty.Шаблон:Sfn The Kabars were organized into three tribes, but a single chieftain commanded them.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Porphyrogenitus also wrote that the Kabars "were promoted to be first" tribe, because they showed themselves "the strongest and most valorous" of the tribes.Шаблон:Sfn Accordingly, the Kabars formed the Magyars' vanguard, because nomadic peoples always placed the associated tribes in the most vulnerable position.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Ibn Rusta wrote that the Magyars subjected the neighboring Slavic peoples, imposing "a heavy tribute on them" and treating them as prisoners.Шаблон:Sfn The Magyars also "made piratical raids on the Slavs" and sold those captured during these raids to the Byzantines in Kerch on the Crimean peninsula.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn A band of Magyar warriors attacked the future Saint Cyril the Philosopher "howling like wolves and wishing to kill him" in the steppes near the Crimea, according to the saint's legend.Шаблон:Sfn However, Cyril convinced them to "release him and his entire retinue in peace".Шаблон:Sfn The inhabitants of the regions along the left bank of the DniesterШаблон:Spaced ndashwhom the Russian Primary Chronicle identified as TivertsiШаблон:Spaced ndashfortified their settlements in the second half of the 9th century, which seems to be connected to the Magyars' presence.Шаблон:Sfn

A plundering raid in East Francia in 862 was the Magyars' first recorded military expedition in Central Europe.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn This raid may have been initiated by Rastislav of Moravia, who was at war with Louis the German, according to Róna-Tas and Spinei.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The longer version of the Annals of Salzburg said the Magyars returned to East Francia and ransacked the region of Vienna in 881.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The same source separately mentioned the Cowari, or Kabars, plundering the region of Kulmberg or Kollmitz in the same year, showing that the Kabars formed a distinct group.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In the early 880s, a "king" of the Magyars had an amicable meeting with Methodius, Archbishop of Moravia, who was returning from Constantinople to Moravia, according to Methodius' legend.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

The Hungarian Conquest (Шаблон:Circa 895Шаблон:Spaced ndash907)

An animated representation of the Magyars' migrations and their conquest of the Carpathian Basin

The Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin

An armed men, wearing a crown, a sword, and a shield depicting a bird of prey

Álmos's son, Árpád, depicted in the Illuminated Chronicle: he was the first head of the federation of the Magyar tribes, according to the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus

The Magyars returned to Central Europe in July 892, when they invaded Moravia in alliance with Arnulf, king of East Francia.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Two years later, they stormed into the March of Pannonia.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn According to the Annals of Fulda, they "killed men and old women outright, and carried out the young women along with them like cattle to satisfy their lusts".Шаблон:Sfn Although this source does not refer to an alliance between the Magyars and Svatopluk I of Moravia, most historians agree the Moravian ruler persuaded them to invade East Francia.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn During their raids in the Carpathian Basin, the Magyars had several opportunities to collect information on their future homeland.Шаблон:Sfn

The Samanid emir, Isma'il ibn Ahmad, launched an expedition against the Oghuz Turks in 893, forcing them to invade the Pechenegs' lands between the Volga and Ural rivers.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn After being expelled from their homeland, the Pechenegs departed for the west in search of new pastures.Шаблон:Sfn The Magyars had in the meantime invaded Bulgaria in alliance with the Byzantine Emperor Leo the Wise.Шаблон:Sfn Simeon I of Bulgaria sent envoys to the Pechenegs and persuaded them to storm into Etelköz.Шаблон:Sfn The unexpected invasion destroyed the unguarded dwelling places of the Magyars, forcing them to leave the Pontic steppes and seek refuge over the Carpathian Mountains.Шаблон:Sfn The Magyars occupied their new homeland in several phases,Шаблон:Sfn initially settling the lands east of the DanubeШаблон:Sfn and only invading the March of Pannonia after Arnulf of East Francia died in 899.Шаблон:Sfn They destroyed Moravia before 906 and consolidated their control of the Carpathian Basin through their victory over a Bavarian army in the Battle of Brezalauspurc in 907.Шаблон:Sfn

Sources

Archaeology

A buckle depicting a sitting man

A fastener from the 9th century, unearthed in Kirovohrad Oblast, Ukraine; the finding belongs to the "Subotcy horizon", attributed to the pre-conquest Hungarians

Since the 1830s, archaeology has played an important role in the study of the Magyar prehistory.Шаблон:Sfn Archaeologists have applied two methods; the so-called "linear method" attempts to determine the route of the migrating Magyars from their original homeland to the Carpathian Basin, while the "retrospective method" tries to discover the antecedents of 10th-century assemblages from the Carpathian Basin in the Eurasian steppes.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn However, only twelve cemeteries in the steppes have yielded finds that show similarities to assemblages unearthed in the Carpathian Basin.Шаблон:Sfn The dating of those cemeteries is also controversial.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Both the scarcity of published archaeological material and the misdating of some sites may have contributed to the low number of archaeological sites that can be attributed to the Hungarians in the steppes, according to archaeologist László Kovács.Шаблон:Sfn Kovács also says that the Hungarians' migration from the steppes and their settlement in the Carpathian Basin may have caused the development of a new material culture, rendering the identification of pre-conquest Hungarians difficult.Шаблон:Sfn Archaeological research has demonstrated that the material culture of the Avars and other steppe peoples who settled in the Carpathian Basin before the Hungarians experienced a similarly significant change after they left the steppes and settled in their new homeland.Шаблон:Sfn

Файл:Migration of the Hungarians (2016).jpg

Migration of Hungarians

Buckles, belt mounts, and other objects of the so-called "Subotcy horizon", which were unearthed at Caterinovca, Slobozia, and other sites along the middle course of the Dniester show similarities with archaeological finds from the 10th-century Carpathian Basin.Шаблон:Sfn These objects were carbon dated to the late 9th century.Шаблон:Sfn The same archaeological sites also yielded vessels similar to the pottery of the neighboring Slavic territories.Шаблон:Sfn

Linguistics

Шаблон:Main The study of the Hungarian language is one of the main sources of the research on the ethnogenesis of the Hungarian people because a language shows the circumstances of its own development and its contacts with other idioms.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn According to a scholarly theory, the oldest layers of Hungarian vocabulary show features of the territory in which the language emerged.Шаблон:Sfn The study of loan words from other languages is instrumental in determining direct contacts between the ancient speakers of the Hungarian language and other peoples.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Loan words also reflect changes in the way of life of the Magyars.Шаблон:Sfn

Written sources

A page from an old codex presenting a large green P initial decorated with tendrils

The first page of the sole manuscript preserving the text of the Gesta Hungarorum, the earliest extant Hungarian chronicle

Written sources on the prehistoric Hungarians may begin with Herodotus, who wrote of the Iyrcae, a people of equestrian hunters who lived next to the Thyssagetae.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Based on the location of the homeland of the Iyrcae and their ethnonym, Gyula Moravcsik, János Harmatta, and other scholars identify them as Hungarians; their view has not been universally accepted.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The 6th-century Byzantine historian John Malalas referred to a Hunnic tribal leader called Muageris, who ruled around 527 AD.Шаблон:Sfn Moravcsik, Dezső Pais, and other historians connect Muageris's name to the Hungarians' endonym (Magyar); they say Malalas's report proves the presence of Magyar tribes in the region of the Sea of Azov in the early 6th century AD. This identification is rejected by most scholars.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

The Continuation of the Chronicle by George the Monk, which was written in the middle of the 10th century, recorded the first historical event – an alliance between the Magyars and the Bulgarians in the late 830s – that can without doubt be connected to the Magyars.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The Byzantine Emperor Leo the Wise's Tactics, a book written around 904, contained a detailed description of their military strategies and way of life.Шаблон:Sfn Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus's De administrando imperio ("On Governing the Empire"), which was completed between 948 and 952, preserves most information on the Magyars' early history.Шаблон:Sfn Abu Abdallah al-Jayhani, the minister of Nasr II, ruler of the Samanid Empire, collected the reports of merchants who had traveled in the western regions of the Eurasian steppes in the 870s and 880s.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Although Al-Jayhani's work was lost, later Muslim scholars Ibn Rusta, Gardizi, Abu Tahir Marwazi, and Al-Bakri used his book, preserving important facts about the late 9th-century Magyars.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn However, their works also contain interpolations from later periods.Шаблон:Sfn Among the sources written in Western Europe, the longer version of the Annals of Salzburg, Regino of Prüm's Chronicon, the Annals of Fulda, and Liutprand of Cremona's Antapodosis ("Retribution"), provide contemporaneous or near-contemporaneous information of the 9th-century Magyars.Шаблон:Sfn There are also references to the Magyars dwelling in the Pontic steppes in the legends of Cyril, Methodius and other early Slavic saints.Шаблон:Sfn According to historian András Róna-Tas, information preserved in the Russian Primary Chronicle, which was completed in the 1110s, has to be "treated with extreme caution".Шаблон:Sfn

The first Hungarian chronicles were written in the late 11th or early 12th centuries but their texts were preserved in manuscripts compiled in the 13th to 15th centuries.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Most extant chronicles show that the earliest works contained no information on the history of the Hungarians before their conversion to Christianity in the 11th century.Шаблон:Sfn The only exception is the Gesta Hungarorum, which is the earliest extant Hungarian chronicle, whose principal subject is the Magyars' pagan past.Шаблон:Sfn However, the reliability of this work, which was written by a former royal notary now known as Anonymus, is suspect.Шаблон:Sfn In his monograph of medieval Hungarian historians, Carlile Aylmer Macartney describes it as "the most famous, the most obscure, the most exasperating and most misleading of all the early Hungarian texts".Шаблон:Sfn

Historiography

Medieval theories

Chronicon Pictum, Attila, Hun, Hungarian, King, sword, saber, crown, orb, beard, medieval, chronicle, book, illumination, illustration, history

King Attila as the first Hungarian king (Chronicon Pictum, 1358)

According to the Annals of St. Bertin, the Magyars who invaded East Francia in 862Шаблон:Sfn were enemies "hitherto unknown" to the local population.Шаблон:Sfn Likewise, Regino of Prüm wrote that the Magyars had been "unheard of in the previous centuries because they were not named". in the sources.Шаблон:Sfn Both remarks evince that late 9th-century authors had no knowledge of the Magyars' origins.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn However, the Magyar raids reminded the Western European and Byzantine scholars of earlier historians' descriptions of the Scythians or Huns, which gave rise to their identification with those peoples.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn For instance, Leo the Wise listed the Hungarians among the "Scythian nations".Шаблон:Sfn The similarity between the Latin ethnonyms Huni and Hungari strengthened the identification of the two peoples, which became commonplace in Western Europe in the 11th century.Шаблон:Sfn The Chronicon Eberspergense was the first source that clearly stated that the Huns and the Hungarians were the same people.Шаблон:Sfn

The earliest Hungarian chronicles adopted the idea that the Huns and Hungarians were closely related.Шаблон:Sfn Anonymus did not mention the Huns, but he referred to Attila the Hun as a ruler "from whose line Prince Álmos", the supreme head of the Magyar tribes, descended.Шаблон:Sfn However, Simon of Kéza explicitly identified the Huns and the Hungarians in the 1280.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn He started his chronicle with a book of the history of the Huns, thus presenting the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin as the reoccupation of a land inherited from their ancestors.Шаблон:Sfn Thereafter the identification of the two peoples was the basic theory of the origins of the Hungarians for centuries.Шаблон:Sfn

Legend of the Wondrous Hind

Four men, one of the leading three dogs, in pursuit of a deer

The "legend of the wondrous hind" depicted in the Illuminated Chronicle

Most historians agree that the legend of the wondrous hind preserved the Hungarians' own myth of their origins.Шаблон:Sfn The late 13th-century chronicler Simon of Kéza was the first to record it.Шаблон:Sfn The legend says two brothers, Hunor and Magor, were the forefathers of the Huns and Hungarians.Шаблон:Sfn They were the sons of Ménrót and his wife, Eneth.Шаблон:Sfn While chasing a hind, they reached as far as the marches of the Sea of Azov, where they abducted the wives of Belar's sons and two daughters of Dula, the prince of the Alans.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn According to historian Gyula Kristó, Eneth's name derived from the Hungarian word for hind (ünő), showing that the Magyars regarded this animal as their totemistic ancestor.Шаблон:Sfn Kristó also says the four personal names mentioned in the legend personify four peoples: the Hungarians (Magor), the Onogurs (Hunor), the Bulgars (Belar) and the DulaШаблон:Spaced ndashkindred of the Alans or Bulgars (Dulo).Шаблон:Sfn The hunt for a beast, ending with the arrival in a new homeland, was a popular legend among the peoples of the Eurasian steppes, including the Huns and the Mansi.Шаблон:Sfn The myth that a people were descended from two brothers was also widespread.Шаблон:Sfn Consequently, it is possible that Simon of Kéza did not record a genuine Hungarian legend, but borrowed it from foreign sources.Шаблон:Sfn

Modern scholarship

The (black and white) title page of a printed book

The title page of János Sajnovics's Demonstratio, the first systematic study of the comparison of the Hungarian and Saami languages

Scholarly attempts in the early 18th century to prove a relationship between the Finns and the Huns led to the realization of the similarities between the Finnish and Hungarian languages.Шаблон:Sfn János Sajnovics's Demonstratio, the first systematic comparative study of Hungarian and the Saami languages, was published in 1770.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Three decades later, Sámuel Gyarmathi demonstrated similarities between a larger group of languages that are now known as Uralic languages.Шаблон:Sfn However, the majority of Hungarian scholars only gradually adopted Sajnovics's and Gyarmathi's views.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In the 1830s, Pál Hunfalvy still wrote that Hungarian had an intermediate position between the Finnish and Turkic languages, but later accepted that Hungarian is closely related to the Mansi and Khanty languages.Шаблон:Sfn Hereafter linguistics played a pre-eminent role in the research of the Magyars' prehistory because it was always the dominant linguistic theory that determined the interpretation of historical and archaeological evidence.Шаблон:Sfn Consequently, as historian Nóra Berend writes, Hungarian prehistory is "a tenuous construct based on linguistics, folklore analogies, archaeology, and later written evidence", because there are no certain records of the Magyars before the 9th century and the identification of archaeological cultures with peoples is highly debatable.Шаблон:Sfn Historian László Kontler identifies "the history of Hungarian origins" as "the history of a community whose genetic composition and cultural character has been changing, but which has assuredly spoken Hungarian or its predecessor language".Шаблон:Sfn

According to mainstream scholarly consensus, the Hungarians are not the autochthonous population of the Carpathian Basin.Шаблон:Sfn Their ancestors arrived there through a series of westward migrations across the Eurasian steppes around 894, centuries after their departure from their original homeland located somewhere in the East.Шаблон:Sfn Many details of the Magyars' prehistoryШаблон:Spaced ndashthe location of their original homeland, the ancient Magyars' connections with the Turkic peoples and the Khazar Khaganate, their lifestyle and political organization, and the background of their conquest of the Carpathian BasinШаблон:Spaced ndashare still subject to scholarly debates.Шаблон:Sfn With regard to the connections between the Magyars and the Turkic tribes, archaeologist Gyula László mooted an alternative theory in the 1960s.Шаблон:Sfn According to his theory of the "double conquest", a large group of people who spoke a Finno-Ugrian language arrived in the Carpathian Basin in 670, and a Turkic-speaking people conquered the same territory in the late 9th century.Шаблон:Sfn László's theory has never been widely accepted.Шаблон:Sfn

Way of life

Economy

Файл:Osztjak vejsze.jpg

Traditional Khanty fishing equipment

Most Neolithic settlements were situated on the banks of rivers and lakes in the proposed original homeland of the Uralic peoples, but no houses have been excavated there.Шаблон:Sfn The local inhabitants primarily used tools made of stoneШаблон:Spaced ndashespecially jasper from the southern UralsШаблон:Spaced ndash, bone and wood, but baked clay vessels decorated with broken or wavy lines were also found.Шаблон:Sfn Their economy was based on fishing, hunting, and gathering.Шаблон:Sfn The basic Hungarian words connected to these activitiesШаблон:Spaced ndashháló (net), íj (bow), nyíl (arrow), ideg (bowstring), and mony (egg)Шаблон:Spaced ndashare inherited from the Proto-Uralic period.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The Hungarian words for house (ház), dwelling (lak), door (ajtó), and bed (ágy) are of Proto-Finno-Ugric origin.Шаблон:Sfn Houses built in the presumed Finno-Ugric homeland in the wider region of the Urals in the 3rd millennium BC show regional differences; in the valley of the Sosva River, square pit-houses were dug deep into the ground; along the Kama River, rectangular semi-pit houses were built.Шаблон:Sfn The local people were hunter-gatherers.Шаблон:Sfn They used egg-shaped, baked clay vessels that were decorated with rhombuses, triangles, and other geometrical forms.Шаблон:Sfn They buried their dead in shallow graves and showered the bodies with red ochre.Шаблон:Sfn They also placed objects including tools, jewels made of pierced boar tusks, and small pendants in the form of animal heads into the graves.Шаблон:Sfn Copper objects found in the graves, which were manufactured in the Caucasus Mountains, indicate that the inhabitants of the lands on both sides of the Ural Mountains had trading contacts with faraway territories around 2000 BC.Шаблон:Sfn Words from the Proto-Ugric periodШаблон:Spaced ndashló ("horse"), nyereg ("saddle"), fék ("bridle"), and szekér ("wagon")Шаблон:Spaced ndashshow that those who spoke this language rode horses.Шаблон:Sfn Animal husbandry spread on both sides of the Urals from around 1500 BC.Шаблон:Sfn The bones of domestic animalsШаблон:Spaced ndashcattle, goats, sheep, pigs, and horsesШаблон:Spaced ndashcomprised 90% of all animal bones excavated in many settlements.Шаблон:Sfn Loan words from Proto-Iranian suggest the Ugric-speaking populations adopted animal husbandry from neighboring peoples.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn For instance, the Hungarian words for cow (tehén) and milk (tej) are of Proto-Iranian origin.Шаблон:Sfn Archaeological findsШаблон:Spaced ndashincluding seeds of millet, wheat, and barley, and tools including sickles, hoes, and spade handlesШаблон:Spaced ndashprove the local population also cultivated arable lands.Шаблон:Sfn

Dozens of small gilded silver objects

10th-century artifacts from a grave of a wealthy woman, unearthed at Szeged-Bojárhalom

The Magyars' ancestors gave up their settled way of life because of the northward expansion of the steppes during the last centuries of the 2nd millennium BC.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ethnographic studies of modern nomadic populations suggest cyclic migrationsШаблон:Spaced ndasha year-by-year movement between their winter and summer campsШаблон:Spaced ndashfeatured in their way of life, but they also cultivated arable lands around their winter camps.Шаблон:Sfn Most historians agree the Magyars had a mixed nomadic or semi-nomadic economy, characterized by both the raising of cattle and the cultivation of arable lands.Шаблон:Sfn Turkic loanwords in the Hungarian language show the Magyars adopted many practices of animal husbandry and agriculture from Turkic peoples between the 5th and 9th centuries.Шаблон:Sfn For instance, the Hungarian words for hen (tyúk), pig (disznó), castrated hog (ártány), bull (bika), ox (ökör), calf (borjú), steer (tinó), female cow (ünő), goat (kecske), camel (teve), ram (kos), buttermilk (író), shepherd's cloak (köpönyeg), badger (borz), fruit (gyümölcs), apple (alma), pear (körte), grape (szőlő), dogwood (som), sloe (kökény), wheat (búza), barley (árpa), pea (borsó), hemp (kender), pepper (borz), nettle (csalán), garden (kert), plough (eke), ax (balta), scutcher (tiló), oakum (csepű), weed (gyom), refuse of grain (ocsú), fallow land (tarló), and sickle (sarló) are of Turkic origin.Шаблон:Sfn Most loanwords were borrowed from Bulgar or other Chuvash-type Turkic language, but the place and the time of the borrowings are uncertain.Шаблон:Sfn The Magyars' connections with the people of the Saltovo-Mayaki culture may have contributed to the development of their agriculture, according to Spinei.Шаблон:Sfn

According to Ibn Rusta, the late 9th-century Magyars "dwell in tents and move from place to place in search of pasturage", but during the winters they settled along the nearest river, where they lived by fishing.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn He also said their "land is well watered and harvests abundant", showing they had arable lands, although it is unclear whether those lands were cultivated by the Magyars themselves or by their prisoners.Шаблон:Sfn Taxes collected from the neighboring peoples, a slave trade, and plundering raids made the Magyars a wealthy people.Шаблон:Sfn Gardezi wrote that they were "a handsome people and of good appearance and their clothes are of silk brocade and their weapons are of silver and are encrusted with pearls",Шаблон:Sfn proving their growing wealth.Шаблон:Sfn However, 9th-century Byzantine and Muslim coins have rarely been found in the Pontic steppes.Шаблон:Sfn

Archaeological finds from the Carpathian Basin provide evidence of the crafts practiced by the Magyars.Шаблон:Sfn 10th-century warriors' graves yielding sabres, arrow-heads, spear-heads, stirrups, and snaffle bits made of iron show that blacksmiths had a pre-eminent role in the militarized Magyar society.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Engraved or gilded sabres and sabretache platesШаблон:Spaced ndashoften decorated with precious stonesШаблон:Spaced ndashand golden or silver pectoral disks evidence the high levels of skills of Magyar gold- and silversmiths.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Cemeteries in the Carpathian Basin also yielded scraps of canvas made of flax or hemp.Шаблон:Sfn The positioning of metal buttons in the graves shows the Magyars wore clothes that either opened down the front or were fastened at the neck.Шаблон:Sfn Ear-rings were the only accessories worn above the belt by Magyar warriors; jewelry on their upper bodies would have hindered them from firing arrows.Шаблон:Sfn In contrast, Magyar women wore head jewelry decorated with leaf-like pendants, ear-rings, decorated pectoral disks, and rings with gemstones.Шаблон:Sfn

A man seeking a bride was expected to pay a bride price to her father before the marriage took place, according to Gardizi's description of the late 9th-century Magyars.Шаблон:Sfn The Hungarian word for bridegroomШаблон:Spaced ndashvőlegény from vevő legény ("purchasing lad")Шаблон:Spaced ndash and the expression eladó lány (verbatim, "bride for sale") confirm the reliability of the Muslim author's report.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn A decree of Stephen I of Hungary prohibiting the abduction of a girl without her parents' consent implies that pretended abduction of the bride by her future husband was an integral part of ancient Magyar matrimonial ceremonies.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Military

Файл:Hungarian warrior.jpg

Fresco about a Hungarian warrior (Italy)

The Magyars' military tactics were similar to those of the Huns, Avars, Pechenegs, Mongols, and other nomadic peoples.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn According to Emperor Leo the Wise, the main components of Magyar warfare were long-distance arrow-fire, surprise attack, and feigned retreat.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn However, the contemporaneous Regino of Prüm said the Magyars knew "nothing about ... taking besieged cities".Шаблон:Sfn Archaeological research confirms Leo the Wise's report of the use of sabres, bows, and arrows.Шаблон:Sfn However, in contrast with the emperor's report, spears have rarely been found in Magyar warriors' tombs.Шаблон:Sfn Their most important weapons were bone-reinforced reflex bows,Шаблон:Sfn with which they could shoot at a specific target within Шаблон:Convert.Шаблон:Sfn

Religion

Modern scholarly theories of the Magyars' pagan religious beliefs and practices are primarily based on reports by biased medieval authors and prohibitions enacted during the reigns of Christian kings.Шаблон:Sfn Both Christian and Muslim sources say the Magyars worshipped forces of nature.Шаблон:Sfn They gave offering to trees, fountains, and stones, and made sacrifices at wells; these are evidenced by the prohibition of such practices during the reign of Ladislaus I of Hungary in the late 11th century.Шаблон:Sfn In accordance with the custom of the peoples of the Eurasian steppes, the pagan Magyars swore oaths on dogs, which were bisected to warn potential oathbrakers of their fate.Шаблон:Sfn Simon of Kéza also wrote about the sacrifice of horses.Шаблон:Sfn According to the Gesta Hungarorum, the seven Magyar chiefs confirmed their treaty "in pagan manner with their own blood spilled in a single vessel".Шаблон:Sfn

Scholars studying the Magyars' religion also take into account ethnographic analogies, folklore, linguistic evidence, and archaeological research.Шаблон:Sfn Artifacts depicting a bird of prey or a tree of life imply both symbols were important elements of the Magyar religion.Шаблон:Sfn TrepanationШаблон:Spaced ndashthe real or symbolic wounding of the craniumШаблон:Spaced ndashwas widely practiced by 10th-century Magyars.Шаблон:Sfn Gyula László writes that real trepanationsШаблон:Spaced ndashthe opening of the skull with a chiesel and the closing of the wound with a sheet of silverШаблон:Spaced ndashwere actually surgical operations similarly to those already practiced by Arab physicians, whereas symbolic trepanationsШаблон:Spaced ndashthe marking of the skull with an incised circleШаблон:Spaced ndashwere aimed at the disposal of a protective talisman on the head.Шаблон:Sfn According to Róna-Tas, a Hungarian word for cunning, (agyafúrt)Шаблон:Spaced ndashverbatim "with a drilled brain"Шаблон:Spaced ndashmay reflect these ancient practices.Шаблон:Sfn

The Magyars buried their dead, laying the deceased on their backs with the arms resting along their bodies or upon their pelvises.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn A deceased warrior's tomb always contained material connected with his horse.Шаблон:Sfn These are most frequently its skin, skull, and the lower legs; these were put into its master's grave, but occasionally only the harness was buried together with the warrior, or the horse's skin was stuffed with hay.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The Magyars rolled the corpses in textiles or mats and placed silver plates on the eyes and the mouth.Шаблон:Sfn

Scholarly theories note the similarities between the táltos of Hungarian folklore and Siberian shamans, but the existence of shamans among the ancient Magyars cannot be proven.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Many elements of the Hungarian religious vocabulary, including boszorkány ("witch"), elbűvöl ("to charm"), and the ancient Hungarian word for holy (igy or egy), are of Turkic origin.Шаблон:Sfn Many of these loanwords were adopted into their Christian vocabulary: búcsú (indulgence), bűn (sin), gyón (confess), isten (god), and ördög (devil).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn According to Gyula László, a Hungarian children's verse that refers to a fife, a drum, and a reed violin preserves the memory of a pagan ritual for expelling harmful spirits by raising great noise.Шаблон:Sfn The refrain of another children's verse, which mentions three days of the week in reverse order, may have preserved an ancient belief in the existence of an afterlife world where everything is upside-down.Шаблон:Sfn

See also

• Hungarian mythology
• Hunor and Magor
• List of Hungarian rulers
• Magyar tribes
• Old Hungarian alphabet
• Origin of the Székelys
• Principality of Hungary
• Shamanistic remnants in Hungarian folklore
• Turul

Sources

Primary sources

• Anonymus, Notary of King Béla: The Deeds of the Hungarians (Edited, Translated and Annotated by Martyn Rady and László Veszprémy) (2010). In: Rady, Martyn; Veszprémy, László; Bak, János M. (2010); Anonymus and Master Roger; CEU Press; Шаблон:ISBN.
• Constantine Porphyrogenitus: De Administrando Imperio (Greek text edited by Gyula Moravcsik, English translation by Romillyi J. H. Jenkins) (1967). Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies. Шаблон:ISBN.
• "Ibn Rusta on the Magyars 903–913" (2012). In: Ibn Fadlān: Ibn Fadlān on the Land of Darkness: Arab Travellers in the Far North (Translated with an Introduction by Paul Lunde and Caroline Stone) (2012); Penguin Books; Шаблон:ISBN.
• Simon of Kéza: The Deeds of the Hungarians (Edited and translated by László Veszprémy and Frank Schaer with a study by Jenő Szűcs) (1999). CEU Press. Шаблон:ISBN.
• The Annals of Fulda (Ninth-Century Histories, Volume II) (Translated and annotated by Timothy Reuter) (1992). Manchester University Press. Шаблон:ISBN.
• The Annals of St-Bertin (Ninth-Century Histories, Volume I) (Translated and annotated by Janet L. Nelson) (1991). Manchester University Press. Шаблон:ISBN.
• "The Chronicle of Regino of Prüm" (2009). In: History and Politics in Late Carolingian and Ottonian Europe: The Chronicle of Regino of Prüm and Adalbert of Magdeburg (Translated and annotated by Simon MacLean); Manchester University Press; Шаблон:ISBN.
• The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle: Chronica de Gestis Hungarorum (Edited by Dezső Dercsényi) (1970). Corvina, Taplinger Publishing. Шаблон:ISBN.
• The Taktika of Leo VI (Text, translation, and commentary by George T. Dennis) (2010). Dumbarton Oaks. Шаблон:ISBN.
• "The Life of Constantine"; "The Life of Methodius" (1983). In: Kantor, Marvin (1983); Medieval Slavic Lives of Saints and Princes; pp. 23–161. University of Michigan; Шаблон:ISBN.

Secondary sources

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Further reading

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External links

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