Английская Википедия:Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture

Ili Kazakh Autonomous PrefectureШаблон:NoteTag is an autonomous prefecture in northern Xinjiang, China. Its capital is Yining, also known as Ghulja or Kulja.

Covering an area of 268,591 square kilometres (16.18 per cent of Xinjiang), Ili Prefecture shares a 2,019 kilometre-long border with Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and Russia.^[1] There are nine ports of entry in Ili Prefecture at the national level, including Jeminay and Khorgas. Directly administered regions (Шаблон:Lang) within the prefecture cover 56,622 square kilometres (21.08 per cent of Ili's total area) and have a population of 4,930,600 (63.95 per cent of Ili's registered population).^[2] Kazakhs in China are the second largest ethnicity in the prefecture after the Han, and make up a little over a quarter of the population.

Ili is the only prefecture-level division that has other prefecture-level divisions (Altay and Tacheng Prefectures) under its administration. The term "sub-provincial autonomous prefecture" (Шаблон:Lang) has often been applied to Ili, but it has no legal basis under Chinese law and is a misnomer.

History

Early history

Файл:镶嵌红宝石金面具裁剪.jpg

A golden mask inlaid with rubies, likely from the First Turkic Khaganate (552–603). It was excavated at the Boma tomb in Zhaosu County and is a part of the Ili Prefecture Museum's collection.^[3]

Before the advent of the Qin dynasty (221Шаблон:NbspBC – 206Шаблон:NbspBC), Ili was inhabited by the Wusuns, a tributary tribe of the Huns. The Wusuns were driven away in the 6th century AD by the northern Xiongnu, who established the First Turkic Khaganate in 552. The area later became a dependency of Dzungaria. During the Tang dynasty (618–907), the khanate became the Protectorate General to Pacify the West of the Tang Empire.

Ili came under the control of the Uyghur Khaganate in the 8th and 9th centuries, the Qara Khitai in the 12th century, and Genghis Khan in the 13th century. The Oirats, specifically the Dzungars, conquered Ili at the end of the 16th or the beginning of the 17th century.Шаблон:Citation needed

Файл:Yili-military-complex-ca-1809.jpg

Map of the Ili region, c. 1809. It is "upside down", i.e. the south is on the top and the west on the right. The nine fortified towns are shown as double rectangles.

Qing dynasty

The Dzungar Khanate controlled both Dzungaria and the Ili basin until 1755, when the region was conquered by the Manchu-led Qing dynasty under the Qianlong Emperor. Having defeated the Dzungars in the Dzungarian and Ili basins, as well as the Afaqi Khojas in Kashgaria, the Qing court decided to make the Ili basin the main base of their control in Xinjiang.

In the 1760s, the Qing built nine fortified towns in the Ili basin:

Original Chinese name	Chinese	Turki (Uyghur) name^[4]	Modern name^[5]	Notes
Huiyuan Cheng	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Huiyuan Town (Шаблон:Lang) in Huocheng County	Old Huiyuan was the residence of the General of Ili from 1765 to 1866. New Huiyuan was the residence of the General of Ili from 1894 to 1912. Historically known as New / Manchu Kulja or Ili.
Ningyuan Cheng	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Yining	Also was known as Old Kulja or Taranchi Kulja. County seat of Ningyuan County (1888–1914) and Yining County (1914–1952).
Huining Cheng	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Bayandai Town (Шаблон:Lang) within Yining, some 10^[6] to 18^[7] kilometres to the west of Yining's city centre
Taleqi Cheng	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Within Huocheng County
Zhande Cheng	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Qingshuihe Town (Шаблон:Lang) in Huocheng County
Guangren Cheng	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Lucaogou Town (Шаблон:Lang) in Huocheng County, NE of Qingshuihe
Gongchen Cheng	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Khorgas City (Шаблон:Lang)
Xichun Cheng	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Area commonly referred to as Chengpanzi (Шаблон:Lang). Located in Hanbin Township (Шаблон:Lang) within Yining, a few kilometres west of the city centre.
Suiding Cheng	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Shuiding Town (Шаблон:Lang), county seat of Huocheng County since 1966	Also known as New / Manchu / Chinese Kulja. Renamed Shuiding in 1965. Residence of the General of Ili from 1762 to 1765 and 1883 to 1894. County seat of Suiding County (1888–1965) and Shuiding County (1965–1966).

Файл:万国来朝图 (Ili delegates in Peking in 1761).jpg

Ili (Шаблон:Lang) delegates in Peking (Beijing) in 1761. From Ten Thousand Nations Coming to Pay Tribute.

Huiyuan Cheng, as the residence of the General of Ili, the chief commander of Qing troops in Xinjiang, became the administrative capital of the region. It was provided with a large penal establishment and a strong garrison. This city was called "New Kulja", "Manhcu Kulja" or "Chinese Kulja" by foreigners to distinguish it from Ningyuan / Yining, known as "Old Kulja" or "Taranchi Kulja".

The first General of Ili was Ming Rui. The Qing tradition, unbroken until the days of Zuo Zongtang in the 1870s, was to only appoint Manchus as officials in Xinjiang.

Файл:Vereshchagin-Ruins-of-the-Theater-in-Chuguchak.jpg

Tacheng (Chuguchak) was among the towns that suffered greatly during the Muslim revolt of 1864.

During the Muslim revolt of 1864, Dungans and Taranchis of the area formed the Taranchi Sultanate. Huiyuan Cheng was the last Qing fortress in the Ili basin to fall to the rebels. The Dungan rebels massacred most of the city's inhabitants; Governor General Mingsioi (Mingxu) assembled his family and staff in his mansion and blew it up, dying under its ruins.

The insurrection led to the occupation of the Ili basin by the Russians in 1871. Ten years later, part of the territory was returned to China in accordance with the 1881 Treaty of Saint Petersburg.

In October 1884, the Qing government officially approved the establishment of Xinjiang Province and the local political system in Ili consequently went through major reforms. The Amban (Шаблон:Lang) and Baig systems (Шаблон:Lang) were abolished and replaced by circuit, urban prefecture, prefecture, and county systems. The position of General of Ili was renamed Ili Garrison General (Шаблон:Lang) and its responsibilities were greatly reduced. The Ili Garrison General would only oversee the military affairs of Ili and Tacheng instead of the whole of Xinjiang, the latter responsibility being delegated to the newly-created position of Xinjiang Grand Coordinator (Шаблон:Lang).^[8] The Ili Garrison General was based in Huiyuan Town.

Yita Circuit (Шаблон:Lang) was formed in Ili and Tacheng in 1888, as a subdivision of Xinjiang Province. It was headquartered in Ningyuan County (present-day Yining). Yita Circuit was divided into Ili Prefecture (Шаблон:Lang), Tacheng Directly Administered Division (Шаблон:Lang), and Jinghe Directly Administered Division (Шаблон:Lang). Altay region was formed from Khovd (Шаблон:Lang; seat in Khovd Town) in 1904.^[8]

Modern history

The Xinhai Revolution broke out on 10 October 1911. Under the leadership of Yang Zuanxu (Шаблон:Lang), a general of the Ili New Army, an armed rebellion against the Qing broke out on 7 January 1912. The rebels occupied Huiyuan Town and killed Zhi Rui (Шаблон:Lang), the Ili Garrison General. On 12 February 1912, the Provisional Government of the Republic of China was established in Beijing, and on 15 March, it ordered the Xinjiang Grand Coordinator, Yuan Dahua (Шаблон:Lang), to end Qing rule in Xinjiang.

With the end of hostilities between Qing and Republican forces, the position of Grand Coordinator of Xinjiang was abolished and replaced with the position of Military Governor of Xinjiang (Шаблон:Lang). Guang Fu (Шаблон:Lang), Zhi Rui's predecessor as Ili Garrison General, was appointed Xinjiang's first military governor. On 25 April, Yuan Dahua was forced to resign as Grand Coordinator of Xinjiang. On 18 May, Yang Zengxin (Шаблон:Lang) was recommended for the position of Military Governor of Xinjiang. On 8 July, the Qing and Republican governments signed a peace agreement, which stipulated that the position of Ili Garrison General would be replaced by the position of Defence Governor of Ili (Шаблон:Lang), under the direct supervision of the Republican government in Beijing. Guang Fu was subsequently appointed as the first Defence Governor of Ili. The agreement also recognised Yang Zengxin as the top military and political authority in all of Xinjiang.

In August 1912, the Republican government adjusted Ili's administrative divisions. The Defence Governor of Ili headquarters were established in Huiyuan Town, the Counsellor's (Шаблон:Lang) in Tacheng, and the Business Executive's (Шаблон:Lang) in Altay. Yita Circuit (Шаблон:Lang) was retained to govern local civil affairs; it was placed under the administration of the Defence Governor.

The position of Ili Defence Governor became vacant after Guang Fu died of illness on 1 February 1914. Yang Zengxin flew to Beijing to petition the Beiyang government (Republican government) to appoint Yang Feixia (Шаблон:Lang) as Guang Fu's replacement. The appointment was approved by Beijing, and the administrative jurisdiction of the position was transferred from the central government to the government of Xinjiang Province. Yita Circuit was then divided into two circuits, Ili and Tacheng, in 1916. The Circuit Governor of Tacheng (Шаблон:Lang) replaced the Counsellor of Tacheng (Шаблон:Lang) with the establishment of Tacheng Circuit.^[8]

In 1919, the Beiyang government placed the Altay Chief under the jurisdiction of the government of Xinjiang Province and Ashan Circuit (Шаблон:Lang) was established from the Altay region. In August 1939, by decree of the Beiyang government, the mingyan (Шаблон:Lang) and centenari (Шаблон:Lang) administrative divisions were abolished and replaced with district and township divisions. Kazakh pastoral affairs were gradually integrated into local government services.^[8]

Ili Prefecture (Шаблон:Lang) was established in 1943, with 11 counties and Xinyuan Division (Шаблон:Lang; present-day Xinyuan County) under its administration. The 11 counties were Yining, Suiding (Шаблон:Lang; part of present-day Huocheng), Khorgas (present-day Huocheng), Gongliu, Tekes, Gongha (Шаблон:Lang; present-day Nilka), Ningxi (Шаблон:Lang; present-day Qapqal), Jinghe, Bole, Wenquan and Zhaosu.^[9] In December 1953, the Ili Kazakh Autonomous Region was established. It was declared a prefecture-level division under the jurisdiction of Xinjiang Province, with the three prefectures of Ili, Tacheng, and Altay under its administration. Bortala Mongol Autonomous Prefecture was created in July 1954 from the counties of Bole, Jinghe, and Wenquan, three counties of Ili Prefecture. Ili Kazakh Autonomous Region was renamed Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture on 5 February 1955.^[10]

During the Yi–Ta incident from March to May 1962, a mass exodus of 14,000 people from Ili Prefecture occurred. Chinese citizens, predominantly Kazakhs, left through the border port of Korgas, driven by deteriorating living conditions in Xinjiang and rumours of Soviet citizenship.^[11] To compensate for the loss in manpower brought about by the exodus, thousands of Bingtuan soldiers were relocated to northern Xinjiang from the region's interior.Шаблон:Sfn The Chinese government also encouraged the migration of hundreds of thousands of Han Chinese youth from major cities such as Beijing, Shanghai, and Tianjin.Шаблон:Sfn By 1969 the number of Han Chinese in Ili Prefecture had reached 1.2 million, outnumbering the number of Kazakhs and Uyghurs combined.^[12]

Geography

Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture is located in the hinterland of Eurasia, in the northwest of Xinjiang, north of the Tian Shan. It covers a total area of 268,591 square kilometres, accounting for 16.18 per cent of the total area of Xinjiang. The autonomous prefecture is bordered to the north by Russia, to the east by Mongolia, to the west by Kazakhstan and Bortala Autonomous Prefecture, and to the south by Aksu Prefecture, Bayingolin Autonomous Prefecture, Changji Autonomous Prefecture, Ürümqi, and Shihezi.^[1] Karamay is an enclave within Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture.

Chongqing-Xinjiang-Europe Railway, G218 National Highway, G217 National Highway and S316 Provincial Highway pass through the autonomous prefecture. It has a 2,019 kilometre-long international border with nine ports of entry, including Khorgas, Bakhty, and Jeminay. Due to its strategic location in the middle of Asia, Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture has become an important commercial hub and dry port for trade with Europe and the Middle East.^[1]

In the autonomous prefecture, there are four types of landforms: 83,632 square kilometres of mountains, 62,989 square kilometres of hills, 102,974 square kilometres of plains, and 20,439 square kilometres of desert. Three major mountain rangesШаблон:Sndthe Altai, Dzungarian Alatau, and Tian Shan Шаблон:Sndstand from the north to south, with year-round ice and snow. Friendship Peak in Burqin County is the highest peak of the Altai mountain range, standing at 4,374 metres high. The snow line is 3,000 to 3,200 metres high, the glacier area is 293.2 square kilometres, and the glacier reserves are 16.4 billion cubic metres. The peaks of the Dzungarian Alatau are 3,500 to 3,700 metres high. The snow line of Tian Shan is 3,600 to 4,400 metres high with a glacier area of 3,139 square kilometres, and its glacier reserves are 118.5 billion cubic metres.^[13]

Administrative divisions

Шаблон:Main Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture administers the directly-administered, county-level city of Yining; 2 other county-level cities; 7 counties; 1 autonomous county; and the two prefectures of Altay and Tacheng, despite Ili being a prefecture-level division itself.^[14]

Part	Division code	Name	Chinese	Hanyu Pinyin	Uyghur (UEY)	Uyghur Latin (ULY)	Kazakh (Arabic script)	Kazakh Latin alphabet Kazakh Cyrillic Alphabet	Population Шаблон:Nowrap	Area (km²)	Density (/km²)
Файл:Ili Kazahk mcp.png Шаблон:Color box Districts under direct administration of Ili Prefecture Шаблон:Color box Tacheng Prefecture Шаблон:Color box Altay Prefecture					Шаблон:Image label begin Шаблон:Image label Шаблон:Image label Шаблон:Image label Шаблон:Image label Шаблон:Image label Шаблон:Image label Шаблон:Image label Шаблон:Image label Шаблон:Image label Шаблон:Image label Шаблон:Image label Шаблон:Image label end
Districts under direct administration of Ili Prefecture			Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Transl	2,778,869	56,522.92	49.16
Districts under direct administration of Ili Prefecture	654002	Yining^[15]	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Transl	778,047	644	1208.15
	654003	Kuytun^[15]	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Transl	229,122	1,171	195.66
	654004	Korgas^[15]	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Transl	71,466	1,908	37.46
	654021	Yining County^[15]	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Transl	365,307	4,476	81,61
	654020	Qapqal Xibe Autonomous County	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Transl	157,764	4,469	35.30
	654023	Huocheng County^[15]	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Transl	243,303	3,546	68.61
	654024	Gongliu County^[15]	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Transl	175,766	4,111	42.76
	654025	Xinyuan County^[15]	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Transl	306,525	7,581	40.43
	654026	Zhaosu County^[15]	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Transl	146,887	10,427	14.09
	654027	Tekes County	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Transl	148,945	8,066	18.47
	654028	Nilka County	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Transl	155,737	10,123	15.538
↪ Altay Prefecture			Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Transl	648,173	117,710	5.51
↪ Tacheng Prefecture^[15]			Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl	Шаблон:Lang	Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Transl	1,108,747	94,869	11.69

Ethnic groups

Файл:Ilipicture.jpg

A Kazakh yurt in the Ili basin

Ili is a multi-ethnic autonomous prefecture; there are 13 local ethnic groups: the Han, Kazakhs, Uyghurs, Hui, Mongols, Xibe, Kyrgyz, Uzbek, Manchus, Tatar, Russians, Daur, and Chinese Tajiks.^[16] Шаблон:As of, Ili had a population of 4,582,500, 2,745,500 (59.9 per cent) of whom were part of an ethnic minority.^[2]

A 2015 report provided the following ethnic breakdown of the population: 1,934,571 Han (41.2 per cent), 1,257,003 Kazakhs (26.8 per cent), 819,701 Uyghurs (17.45 per cent), 433,045 Hui (9.2 per cent), 75,597 Mongols (1.6 per cent), 34,457 Xibe, 22,428 Kyrgyz, 8,298 Uzbeks, 8,298 Daurs, 5,394 Russians, 5,199 Manchus, 2,852 Tatars, 153 Chinese Tajiks and 91,749 "others".^[17]

Шаблон:Bar box

Шаблон:Bar chart

Tourism

Ili's major tourist attractions include the Narati Grassland, Guozigou Lake, and Kanas Lake. In 2015 alone, Ili has seen over 25 million travellers and earned over CN¥19 billion (US$2.92 billion) in tourism revenue.^[18]

Transport

Road and railway

An extensive road network is being built across the prefecture for economic development. In 2015, 66 million passengers travelled on Ili's roads.

The railway has extended to the northern extremes of Altay and the westmost city of Khorgas on the China–Kazakhstan border.

Border crossings

Ili has nine international ports of entry:

With Kazakhstan
- Aqimbek (Шаблон:Zh) of Altay Prefecture
- Bakhtu (Шаблон:Zh), Шаблон:Convert from Tacheng; another primary point or port
- Dulat (Шаблон:Zh), in Qapqal Xibe Autonomous County: under Ili
- Jeminay (Шаблон:Zh) of Altay Prefecture; another primary point or port
- Khorgas (Шаблон:Zh), in Huocheng County; under Ili; a primary Chinese "national" border crossing point or port of entry
- Muzart (Шаблон:Zh), in Zhaosu County: directly controlled by Ili; another primary point or port
With Mongolia
- Khiziltaw (Шаблон:Zh) of Altay Prefecture
- Taskhin (Шаблон:Zh) of Altay Prefecture to Khovd
- Dayan-Khunshanzyui of Altay Prefecture to Bayan-Ölgii. Only open during Summer.^[19]

Heads

First Secretaries

Zhao Tianjie (Шаблон:Lang) (2017 - 2020)

Governors

Fathan (Pätіhan) Dälelhanūly Sügіrbaev (Шаблон:Zh; Шаблон:Lang-kk), November 1954 – June 1955
Jağda Babylyqūly (Шаблон:Zh; Шаблон:Lang), June 1955 – February 1957 Acting Act, from May 1958
Qūrmanälі Ospanūly (Шаблон:Lang; Шаблон:Lang), June 1958 – September 1963
Erğali Äbіlqaiyrūly(Шаблон:Lang; Шаблон:Lang), September 1963 – May 1969
Zhong Liangshu (Шаблон:Zh;^[20] Шаблон:Lang), May 1969 – May 1970 (military government)
Wang Zhenzhong (Шаблон:Zh;^[20] Шаблон:Lang), May 1970 – July 1975 (military government)
Xie Gaozhong (Шаблон:Lang;^[20] Шаблон:Lang), July 1975 – September 1975 (military government)
Jänäbil Smağūlūly (Шаблон:Zh; Шаблон:Lang), September 1975 – February 1978
Qasymbek Seiіtjanūly (Шаблон:Zh; Шаблон:Lang), March 1979 – April 1983
Dıar Qūrmaşūly (Шаблон:Zh; Шаблон:Lang), April 1983 – May 1988
Ashat Kerimbay (Шаблон:Zh; Шаблон:Lang), May 1988 – May 1993
Bekmūhammed Mūsaūly (Шаблон:Zh; Шаблон:Lang), April 1993 – March 1998
Alpysbai Rahymūly (Шаблон:Zh; Шаблон:Lang), March 1998 – June 2001
Nurlan Äbilmäjinulı (Шаблон:Zh; Шаблон:Lang), March 2002 – January 2003
Qyzaijan Seiіlqojaūly (Шаблон:Zh; Шаблон:Lang), March 2003 – November 2007
Mäuken Seiіtqamzaūly (Шаблон:Zh; Шаблон:Lang), November 2007 – January 2012
Mänen Zeinelūly (Шаблон:Zh; Шаблон:Lang), February 2012 – January 2016
Qūrmaş Syrjanūly (Шаблон:Zh; Шаблон:Lang), February 2016 – April 2021^[21]^[22]^[23]
Qadan Käbenuly (Шаблон:Zh; Шаблон:Lang), from April 2021

Notable people

Notes

Шаблон:NoteFoot

References

Citations

Шаблон:Reflist

Sources

Шаблон:Refbegin

Henry Lansdell, "Russian Central Asia: Including Kuldja, Bokhara, Khiva and Merv". Full text Шаблон:Webarchive available at Google Books; there is also a 2001 facsimile reprint of the 1885 edition, Шаблон:ISBN. (Chapters XIV-XVI describe Lansdell visit to the area in the early 1880s, soon after the Russian withdrawal). Шаблон:In lang

Шаблон:Refend

External links

Шаблон:Commons category

Шаблон:Official website Шаблон:In lang

Шаблон:Xinjiang Шаблон:Prefectural-level divisions of the People's Republic of China Шаблон:Other ethnic minorities autonomy in the People's Republic of China

Шаблон:Authority control

↑ ^1,0 ^1,1 ^1,2 Шаблон:Cite web
↑ ^2,0 ^2,1 Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
↑ As per Kim (2004), pp. 54, 229
↑ Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Direct distance from modern maps
↑ Road distance from Lansdell (1885), p. 190
↑ ^8,0 ^8,1 ^8,2 ^8,3 Шаблон:Cite book also see Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
↑ Шаблон:Cite book
↑ Шаблон:Cite EB1911
↑ ^15,0 ^15,1 ^15,2 ^15,3 ^15,4 ^15,5 ^15,6 ^15,7 ^15,8 The official spelling according to Шаблон:Cite book
↑ Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Шаблон:Cite web
↑ ^20,0 ^20,1 ^20,2 Шаблон:Cite book
↑ (Шаблон:Cite web)
↑ (Шаблон:Cite web)
↑ (Шаблон:Cite web)

[overview-1] 1,0 ^1,1 ^1,2 Шаблон:Cite web

[population-2] 2,0 ^2,1 Шаблон:Cite web

[3] Шаблон:Cite journal

[4] As per Kim (2004), pp. 54, 229

[5] Шаблон:Cite web

[6] Direct distance from modern maps

[7] Road distance from Lansdell (1885), p. 190

[Ili_history-8] 8,0 ^8,1 ^8,2 ^8,3 Шаблон:Cite book also see Шаблон:Cite web

[9] Шаблон:Cite web

[10] Шаблон:Cite web

[11] Шаблон:Cite journal

[12] Шаблон:Cite journal

[13] Шаблон:Cite book

[Kulja-14] Шаблон:Cite EB1911

[official-15] 15,0 ^15,1 ^15,2 ^15,3 ^15,4 ^15,5 ^15,6 ^15,7 ^15,8 The official spelling according to Шаблон:Cite book

[ethnic_groups-16] Шаблон:Cite web

[population2015-17] Шаблон:Cite web

[18] Шаблон:Cite web

[19] Шаблон:Cite web

[ili_local_chronicle-20] 20,0 ^20,1 ^20,2 Шаблон:Cite book

[ҚЫТАЙДАҒЫ_ІЛЕ_ҚАЗАҚ_АВТОНОМИЯЛЫ_ОБЛЫСЫН_БАСҚАРҒАНДАР-21] (Шаблон:Cite web)

[22] (Шаблон:Cite web)

[23] (Шаблон:Cite web)

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[3]

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Магазины	AliExpress — глобальная виртуальная (в Интернете) торговая площадка, предоставляющая возможность покупать товары производителей из КНР; computeruniverse.net - Интернет-магазин компьютеров(Промо код 5 Евро на первую покупку:FWWC3ZKQ);
Хостинг	DigitalOcean - американский провайдер облачных инфраструктур, с главным офисом в Нью-Йорке и с центрами обработки данных по всему миру;
Разное	Викиум - Онлайн-тренажер для мозга Like Центр - Центр поддержки и развития предпринимательства. Gamersbay - лучший магазин по бустингу для World of Warcraft. Ноотропы OmniMind N°1 - Усиливает мозговую активность. Повышает мотивацию. Улучшает память. Санкт-Петербургская школа телевидения - это федеральная сеть образовательных центров, которая имеет филиалы в 37 городах России. Lingualeo.com — интерактивный онлайн-сервис для изучения и практики английского языка в увлекательной игровой форме. Junyschool (Джунискул) – международная школа программирования и дизайна для детей и подростков от 5 до 17 лет, где ученики осваивают компьютерную грамотность, развивают алгоритмическое и креативное мышление, изучают основы программирования и компьютерной графики, создают собственные проекты: игры, сайты, программы, приложения, анимации, 3D-модели, монтируют видео. Умназия - Интерактивные онлайн-курсы и тренажеры для развития мышления детей 6-13 лет SkillBox - это один из лидеров российского рынка онлайн-образования. Среди партнеров Skillbox ведущий разработчик сервисного дизайна AIC, медиа-компания Yoola, первое и самое крупное русскоязычное аналитическое агентство Tagline, онлайн-школа дизайна и иллюстрации Bang! Bang! Education, оператор PR-рынка PACO, студия рисования Draw&Go, агентство performance-маркетинга Ingate, scrum-студия Sibirix, имидж-лаборатория Персона. «Нетология» — это университет по подготовке и дополнительному обучению специалистов в области интернет-маркетинга, управления проектами и продуктами, дизайна, Data Science и разработки. В рамках Нетологии студенты получают ценные теоретические знания от лучших экспертов Рунета, выполняют практические задания на отработку полученных навыков, общаются с экспертами и единомышленниками. Познакомиться со всеми продуктами подробнее можно на сайте https://netology.ru, линейка курсов и профессий постоянно обновляется. StudyBay Brazil – это онлайн биржа для португалоговорящих студентов и авторов! Студент получает уникальную работу любого уровня сложности и больше свободного времени, в то время как у автора появляется дополнительный заработок и бесценный опыт. Автор24 — самая большая в России площадка по написанию учебных работ: контрольные и курсовые работы, дипломы, рефераты, решение задач, отчеты по практике, а так же любой другой вид работы. Сервис сотрудничает с более 70 000 авторов. Более 1 000 000 работ уже выполнено. StudyBay – это онлайн биржа для англоязычных студентов и авторов! Студент получает уникальную работу любого уровня сложности и больше свободного времени, в то время как у автора появляется дополнительный заработок и бесценный опыт.