Английская Википедия:Immaculate Conception

The Immaculate Conception is the belief that the Virgin Mary was free of original sin from the moment of her conception.Шаблон:Sfn It is one of the four Marian dogmas of the Catholic Church.Шаблон:Sfn Debated by medieval theologians, it was not defined as a dogma until 1854,Шаблон:Sfn by Pope Pius IX in the papal bull Ineffabilis Deus.Шаблон:Sfn While the Immaculate Conception asserts Mary's freedom from original sin, the Council of Trent, held between 1545 and 1563, had previously affirmed her freedom from personal sin.Шаблон:Sfn

The Immaculate Conception became a popular subject in literature,Шаблон:Sfn but its abstract nature meant it was late in appearing as a subject in works of art.Шаблон:Sfn The iconography of Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception shows Mary standing, with arms outstretched or hands clasped in prayer. The feast day of the Immaculate Conception is December 8.Шаблон:Sfn

Many Protestant churches rejected the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception as unscriptural,Шаблон:Sfn though some Anglicans accept it as a pious devotion.^[1] Opinions on the Immaculate Conception in Oriental Orthodoxy are divided: Shenouda III, Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church, opposed the teaching,^[2] as did Patriarch Ignatius Zakka I of the Syriac Orthodox Church;^[3] the Eritrean and Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo accept it.^[4] It is not accepted by Eastern Orthodoxy due to differences in the understanding of original sin, although they do affirm Mary's purity and preservation from sin.Шаблон:Sfn Patriarch Anthimus VII of Constantinople (1827–1913) characterized the dogma of the Immaculate Conception as a "Roman novelty".Шаблон:Sfn

History

Anne, mother of Mary, and original sin

Шаблон:Main Anne, the mother of Mary, first appears in the 2nd-century apocryphal Gospel of James, and the author created his story by drawing on Greek tales of the childhood of heroes and on the Old Testament story of Hannah (hence the name Anna/Anne), the mother of the biblical Samuel.Шаблон:Sfn Anne and her husband, Joachim, are infertile, but God hears their prayers and Mary is conceived.Шаблон:Sfn Within the Gospel of James, the conception occurs without sexual intercourse between Anne and Joachim, which fits well with the Gospel of James' persistent emphasis on Mary's sacred purity, but the story does not advance the idea of an immaculate conception.Шаблон:Sfn The author of the Gospel of James may have based this account of Mary's conception on that of John the Baptist as recounted in the Gospel of Luke.^[5] The Eastern Orthodox Church holds that "Mary is conceived by her parents as we are all conceived".^[6]

Church Fathers

According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and Cyril of Jerusalem developed the idea of Mary as the New Eve, drawing comparison to Eve, while yet immaculate and incorrupt — that is to say, not subject to original sin. The encyclopedia adds that Ephrem the Syrian said she was as innocent as Eve before the Fall.^[7]^[8]

Ambrose asserted Mary's incorruptibility, attributing her virginity to grace and immunity from sin. Severus, Bishop of Antioch, concurred affirming Mary's purity and immaculateness.^[9] John Damascene extended the supernatural influence of God to Mary's parents, suggesting they were purified by the Holy Spirit during her generation. According to Damascene, even the material of Mary's origin was deemed pure and holy. This perspective, which emphasized an immaculate active generation and the sanctity of the conceptio carnis, found resonance among some Western authors. Notably, the Greek Fathers did not explicitly discuss the Immaculate Conception.^[7]

Medieval formulation

Файл:Lusenberg-Immaculata-1876.jpg

Altar of the Immaculata by Joseph Lusenberg, 1876, representing Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception, at Saint Antony's Church, Urtijëi, Italy

By the 4th century the idea that Mary was free from sin was generally more widespread,Шаблон:Sfn but original sin raised the question of whether she was also free of the sin passed down from Adam.Шаблон:Sfn The question became acute when the feast of her conception began to be celebrated in England in the 11th century,Шаблон:Sfn and the opponents of the feast of Mary's conception brought forth the objection that as sexual intercourse is sinful, to celebrate Mary's conception was to celebrate a sinful event.Шаблон:Sfn The feast of Mary's conception originated in the Eastern Church in the 7th century, reached England in the 11th, and from there spread to Europe, where it was given official approval in 1477 and extended to the whole church in 1693; the word "immaculate" was not officially added to the name of the feast until 1854.Шаблон:Sfn

The doctrine of the Immaculate Conception caused a virtual civil war between Franciscans and Dominicans during the Middle Ages, with Franciscan 'Scotists' in its favour and Dominican 'Thomists' against it.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Sfn The English ecclesiastic and scholar Eadmer (Шаблон:Circa) reasoned that it was possible that Mary was conceived without original sin in view of God's omnipotence, and that it was also appropriate in view of her role as Mother of God: Potuit, decuit, fecit, "it was possible, it was fitting, therefore it was done".Шаблон:Sfn Others, including Bernard of Clairvaux (1090–1153) and Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), objected that if Mary were free of original sin at her conception then she would have no need of redemption, making Christ's saving redemption superfluous; they were answered by Duns Scotus (1264–1308), who "developed the idea of preservative redemption as being a more perfect one: to have been preserved free from original sin was a greater grace than to be set free from sin".Шаблон:Sfn In 1439, the Council of Basel, in schism with Pope Eugene IV who resided at the Council of Florence,Шаблон:Sfn declared the Immaculate Conception a "pious opinion" consistent with faith and Scripture; the Council of Trent, held in several sessions in the early 1500s, made no explicit declaration on the subject but exempted her from the universality of original sin; and also affirmed that she remained during all her life free from all stain of sin, even the venial one.^[10]; by 1571 the revised Roman Breviary set out an elaborate celebration of the Feast of the Immaculate Conception on 8 December.Шаблон:Sfn

Popular devotion and Ineffabilis Deus

The eventual creation of the dogma was due more to popular devotion than scholarship.Шаблон:Sfn The Immaculate Conception became a popular subject in literature and art,Шаблон:Sfn and some devotees went so far as to hold that Anne had conceived Mary by kissing her husband Joachim, and that Anne's father and grandmother had likewise been conceived without sexual intercourse, although Bridget of Sweden (Шаблон:Circa–1373) told how Mary herself had revealed to her that Anne and Joachim conceived their daughter through a sexual union which was sinless because it was pure and free of sexual lust.Шаблон:Sfn

In the 16th and especially the 17th centuries there was a proliferation of Immaculatist devotion in Spain, leading the Habsburg monarchs to demand that the papacy elevate the belief to the status of dogma.Шаблон:Sfn In France in 1830 Catherine Labouré (May 2, 1806 – December 31, 1876) saw a vision of Mary standing on a globe while a voice commanded her to have a medal made in imitation of what she saw.Шаблон:Sfn The medal said "O Mary, conceived without sin, pray for us who have recourse to thee", which was a confirmation of Mary herself that she was conceived without sin, confirming the Immaculate Conception. Her vision marked the beginning of a great 19th-century Marian revival.Шаблон:Sfn

In 1849 Pope Pius IX issued the encyclical Ubi primum soliciting the bishops of the church for their views on whether the doctrine should be defined as dogma; ninety percent of those who responded were supportive, although the Archbishop of Paris, Marie-Dominique-Auguste Sibour, warned that the Immaculate Conception "could be proved neither from the Scriptures nor from tradition", Шаблон:Sfn and in 1854 the Immaculate Conception dogma was proclaimed with the bull Ineffabilis Deus.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Sfn

We declare, pronounce, and define that the doctrine which holds that the most Blessed Virgin Mary, in the first instance of her conception, by a singular grace and privilege granted by Almighty God, in view of the merits of Jesus Christ, the Saviour of the human race, was preserved free from all stain of original sin, is a doctrine revealed by God and therefore to be believed firmly and constantly by all the faithful.Шаблон:Sfn

Dom Prosper Guéranger, Abbot of Solesmes Abbey, who had been one of the main promoters of the dogmatic statement, wrote Mémoire sur l'Immaculée Conception, explaining what he saw as its basis:

For the belief to be defined as a dogma of faith [...] it is necessary that the Immaculate Conception form part of Revelation, expressed in Scripture or Tradition, or be implied in beliefs previously defined. Needed, afterward, is that it be proposed to the faith of the faithful through the teaching of the ordinary magisterium. Finally, it is necessary that it be attested by the liturgy, and the Fathers and Doctors of the Church.^[11]

Файл:Virgilio Tojetti 1877 Our Lady of Lourdes.jpg

Our Lady of Lourdes's 9th apparition, 25 February 1858, by Virgilio Tojett (1877), after Bernadette Soubirous' description.^[12] Soubirous claimed the Lady identified herself as the "Immaculate Conception".

Guéranger maintained that these conditions were met and that the definition was therefore possible. Ineffabilis Deus found the Immaculate Conception in the Ark of Salvation (Noah's Ark), Jacob's Ladder, the Burning Bush at Sinai, the Enclosed Garden from the Song of Songs, and many more passages.Шаблон:Sfn From this wealth of support the pope's advisors singled out Genesis 3:15: "The most glorious Virgin ... was foretold by God when he said to the serpent: 'I will put enmity between you and the woman,Шаблон:' "Шаблон:Sfn a prophecy which reached fulfilment in the figure of the Woman in the Revelation of John, crowned with stars and trampling the Dragon underfoot.Шаблон:Sfn Luke 1:28, and specifically the phrase "full of grace" by which Gabriel greeted Mary, was another reference to her Immaculate Conception: "she was never subject to the curse and was, together with her Son, the only partaker of perpetual benediction".Шаблон:Sfn

Ineffabilis Deus was one of the pivotal events of the papacy of Pius, pope from 16 June 1846 to his death on 7 February 1878.Шаблон:Sfn Four years after the proclamation of the dogma, in 1858, the young Bernadette Soubirous said that Mary appeared to her at Lourdes in southern France, to announce that she was the Immaculate Conception; the Catholic Church later endorsed the apparition as authentic.Шаблон:Sfn There are other (approved) Marian apparitions in which Mary identified herself as the Immaculate Conception, for example Our Lady of Gietrzwald in 1877, Poland.^[13]

Feast, patronages and disputes

Файл:Quadrittu (cropped).jpg

The procession of the Quadrittu of the Immaculate Conception taken on December 7 in Saponara, Sicily

Шаблон:Main The feast day of the Immaculate Conception is December 8.Шаблон:Sfn The Roman Missal and the Roman Rite Liturgy of the Hours include references to Mary's immaculate conception in the feast of the Immaculate Conception. Its celebration seems to have begun in the Eastern church in the 7th century and may have spread to Ireland by the 8th, although the earliest well-attested record in the Western church is from England early in the 11th.Шаблон:Sfn It was suppressed there after the Norman Conquest (1066), and the first thorough exposition of the doctrine was a response to this suppression.Шаблон:Sfn It continued to spread through the 15th century despite accusations of heresy from the Thomists and strong objections from several prominent theologians. Шаблон:Sfn Beginning around 1140 Bernard of Clairvaux, a Cistercian monk, wrote to Lyons Cathedral to express his surprise and dissatisfaction that it had recently begun to be observed there,Шаблон:Sfn but in 1477 Pope Sixtus IV, a Franciscan Scotist and devoted Immaculist, placed it on the Roman calendar (i.e., list of church festivals and observances) via the bull Cum praexcelsa.Шаблон:Sfn Thereafter in 1481 and 1483, in response to the polemic writings of the prominent Thomist, Vincenzo Bandello, Pope Sixtus IV published two more bulls which forbade anybody to preach or teach against the Immaculate Conception, or for either side to accuse the other of heresy, on pains of excommunication. Pope Pius V kept the feast on the tridentine calendar but suppressed the word "immaculate".Шаблон:Sfn Gregory XV in 1622 prohibited any public or private assertion that Mary was conceived in sin. Urban VIII in 1624 allowed the Franciscans to establish a military order dedicated to the Virgin of the Immaculate Conception.Шаблон:Sfn Following the promulgation of Ineffabilis Deus the typically Franciscan phrase "immaculate conception" reasserted itself in the title and euchology (prayer formulae) of the feast. Pius IX solemnly promulgated a mass formulary drawn chiefly from one composed 400 years by a papal chamberlain at the behest of Sixtus IV, beginning "O God who by the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin".Шаблон:Sfn

Prayers and hymns

The Roman Rite liturgical books, including the Roman Missal and the Liturgy of the Hours, included offices venerating Mary's immaculate conception on the feast of the Immaculate Conception. An example is the antiphon that begins: "Tota pulchra es, Maria, et macula originalis non est in te" ("You are all beautiful, Mary, and the original stain [of sin] is not in you". It continues: "Your clothing is white as snow, and your face is like the sun. You are all beautiful, Mary, and the original stain [of sin] is not in you. You are the glory of Jerusalem, you are the joy of Israel, you give honour to our people. You are all beautiful, Mary".)^[14] On the basis of the original Gregorian chant music,^[15] polyphonic settings have been composed by Anton Bruckner,^[16] Pablo Casals, Maurice Duruflé,^[17] Grzegorz Gerwazy Gorczycki,^[18] Ola Gjeilo,^[19] José Maurício Nunes Garcia,^[20] and Шаблон:Ill.^[21]

Other prayers honouring Mary's immaculate conception are in use outside the formal liturgy. The Immaculata prayer, composed by Maximillian Kolbe, is a prayer of entrustment to Mary as the Immaculata.^[22] A novena of prayers, with a specific prayer for each of the nine days has been composed under the title of the Immaculate Conception Novena.^[23]

Ave Maris Stella is the vesper hymn of the feast of the Immaculate Conception.^[24] The hymn Immaculate Mary, addressed to Mary as the Immaculately Conceived One, is closely associated with Lourdes.^[25]

Artistic representation

Шаблон:Main

Файл:Giotto di Bondone - No. 6 Scenes from the Life of Joachim - 6. Meeting at the Golden Gate - WGA09176.jpg

Giotto, Meeting at the Golden Gate, 1304–1306

The Immaculate Conception became a popular subject in literature,Шаблон:Sfn but its abstract nature meant it was late in appearing as a subject in art.Шаблон:Sfn During the Medieval period it was depicted as "Joachim and Anne Meeting at the Golden Gate", meaning Mary's conception through the chaste kiss of her parents at the Golden Gate in Jerusalem;Шаблон:Sfn the 14th and 15th centuries were the heyday for this scene, after which it was gradually replaced by more allegorical depictions featuring an adult Mary.Шаблон:Sfn

The definitive iconography for the depiction of "Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception" seems to have been finally established by the painter and theorist Francisco Pacheco in his "El arte de la pintura" of 1649: a beautiful young girl of 12 or 13, wearing a white tunic and blue mantle, rays of light emanating from her head ringed by twelve stars and crowned by an imperial crown, the sun behind her and the moon beneath her feet.Шаблон:Sfn Pacheco's iconography influenced other Spanish artists or artists active in Spain such as El Greco, Bartolomé Murillo, Diego Velázquez, and Francisco Zurbarán, who each produced a number of artistic masterpieces based on the use of these same symbols.Шаблон:Sfn The popularity of this particular representation of The Immaculate Conception spread across the rest of Europe, and has since remained the best known artistic depiction of the concept: in a heavenly realm, moments after her creation, the spirit of Mary (in the form of a young woman) looks up in awe at (or bows her head to) God. The moon is under her feet and a halo of twelve stars surround her head, possibly a reference to "a woman clothed with the sun" from Revelation 12:1–2. Additional imagery may include clouds, a golden light, and putti. In some paintings the putti are holding lilies and roses, flowers often associated with Mary.Шаблон:Sfn

Other denominations

Шаблон:Further

Eastern Orthodoxy

Eastern Orthodoxy never accepted Augustine's specific ideas on original sin, and in consequence did not become involved in the later developments that took place in the Roman Catholic Church, including the Immaculate Conception.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Sfn In 1894, when Pope Leo XIII addressed the Eastern church in his encyclical Praeclara gratulationis, Ecumenical Patriarch Anthimos, in 1895, replied with an encyclical approved by the Constantinopolitan Synod in which he stigmatised the dogmas of the Immaculate Conception and papal infallibility as "Roman novelties" and called on the Roman church to return to the faith of the early centuries.Шаблон:Sfn Eastern Orthodox Bishop Kallistos Ware comments that "the Latin dogma seems to us not so much erroneous as superfluous".Шаблон:Sfn

Oriental Orthodoxy

The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Churches believe in the Immaculate Conception of the Theotokos. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church celebrates the Feast of the Immaculate Conception on Nehasie 7 (August 13).^[4]^[26]

Old Catholics

In the mid-19th century, some Catholics who were unable to accept the doctrine of papal infallibility left the Roman Church and formed the Old Catholic Church. This movement rejects the Immaculate Conception.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Sfn

Protestantism

Protestants overwhelmingly condemned the promulgation of Ineffabilis Deus as an exercise in papal power, and the doctrine itself as unscriptural,Шаблон:Sfn for it denied that all had sinned and rested on the Latin translation of Luke 1:28 (the "full of grace" passage) that the original Greek did not support.Шаблон:Sfn Protestants, therefore, teach that Mary was a sinner saved through grace, like all believers.Шаблон:Sfn

The Catholic–Lutheran dialogue's statement The One Mediator, the Saints, and Mary, issued in 1990 after seven years of study and discussion, conceded that Lutherans and Catholics remained separated "by differing views on matters such as the invocation of saints, the Immaculate Conception and the Assumption of Mary";^[27] the final report of the Anglican–Roman Catholic International Commission (ARCIC), created in 1969 to further ecumenical progress between the Roman Catholic Church and the Anglican Communion, similarly recorded the disagreement of the Anglicans with the doctrine, although Anglo-Catholics may hold the Immaculate Conception as an optional pious belief.Шаблон:Sfn

References

Citations

Шаблон:Reflist

Bibliography

Шаблон:Refbegin

Шаблон:Refend

External links

Шаблон:Commons category

Ineffabilis Deus – encyclical defining the Immaculate Conception

Шаблон:Virgin Mary Шаблон:Catholic saints Шаблон:Liturgical year of the Catholic Church Шаблон:History of the Catholic Church Шаблон:Catholicism Шаблон:Our Lady of Lourdes Шаблон:Madonna styles Шаблон:Authority control

↑ Шаблон:Cite book
↑ Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Шаблон:Cite web
↑ ^4,0 ^4,1 Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Шаблон:Cite book
↑ Hopko, Thomas. The Winter Pascha Chapter 9, Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America
↑ ^7,0 ^7,1 Шаблон:Citation-attribution
↑ Шаблон:Cite book
↑ Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Council of Trent, DG 1573. As quoted in Шаблон:Cite web (at n°. 2)
↑ "How Abbot of Solesmes Explained the Immaculate Conception", Zenit, December 9, 2004
↑ Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
↑ The text (in Latin) is given at Tota Pulchra Es – GMEA Honor Chorus.
↑ Шаблон:Cite AV media Шаблон:Cbignore
↑ Шаблон:Cite AV media Шаблон:Cbignore
↑ Шаблон:Cite AV media Шаблон:Cbignore
↑ Шаблон:Cite AV media Шаблон:Cbignore
↑ Шаблон:Cite AV media Шаблон:Cbignore
↑ Шаблон:Cite AV media Шаблон:Cbignore
↑ Шаблон:Cite AV media Шаблон:Cbignore
↑ Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Sutfin, Edward J., True Christmas Spirit, Grail Publications, St. Meinrad, Indiana, 1955
↑ Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Шаблон:Cite web
↑ Шаблон:Cite web

[1] Шаблон:Cite book

[2] Шаблон:Cite web

[3] Шаблон:Cite web

[Eritrean-4] 4,0 ^4,1 Шаблон:Cite web

[5] Шаблон:Cite book

[6] Hopko, Thomas. The Winter Pascha Chapter 9, Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America

[Holweck-7] 7,0 ^7,1 Шаблон:Citation-attribution

[8] Шаблон:Cite book

[9] Шаблон:Cite web

[10] Council of Trent, DG 1573. As quoted in Шаблон:Cite web (at n°. 2)

[11] "How Abbot of Solesmes Explained the Immaculate Conception", Zenit, December 9, 2004

[12] Шаблон:Cite web

[13] Шаблон:Cite journal

[14] The text (in Latin) is given at Tota Pulchra Es – GMEA Honor Chorus.

[15] Шаблон:Cite AV media Шаблон:Cbignore

[16] Шаблон:Cite AV media Шаблон:Cbignore

[17] Шаблон:Cite AV media Шаблон:Cbignore

[18] Шаблон:Cite AV media Шаблон:Cbignore

[19] Шаблон:Cite AV media Шаблон:Cbignore

[20] Шаблон:Cite AV media Шаблон:Cbignore

[21] Шаблон:Cite AV media Шаблон:Cbignore

[22] Шаблон:Cite web

[23] Шаблон:Cite web

[24] Sutfin, Edward J., True Christmas Spirit, Grail Publications, St. Meinrad, Indiana, 1955

[25] Шаблон:Cite web

[26] Шаблон:Cite web

[Ryan1990-27] Шаблон:Cite web

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

Партнерские ресурсы
Криптовалюты	Обмен криптовалют - www.bestchange.ru Криптовалютная биржа CoinEx Криптовалютная биржа Binance HIVE OS - операционная система для майнинга e4pool - Мультивалютный пул для майнинга.
Магазины	AliExpress — глобальная виртуальная (в Интернете) торговая площадка, предоставляющая возможность покупать товары производителей из КНР; computeruniverse.net - Интернет-магазин компьютеров(Промо код 5 Евро на первую покупку:FWWC3ZKQ);
Хостинг	DigitalOcean - американский провайдер облачных инфраструктур, с главным офисом в Нью-Йорке и с центрами обработки данных по всему миру;
Разное	Викиум - Онлайн-тренажер для мозга Like Центр - Центр поддержки и развития предпринимательства. Gamersbay - лучший магазин по бустингу для World of Warcraft. Ноотропы OmniMind N°1 - Усиливает мозговую активность. Повышает мотивацию. Улучшает память. Санкт-Петербургская школа телевидения - это федеральная сеть образовательных центров, которая имеет филиалы в 37 городах России. Lingualeo.com — интерактивный онлайн-сервис для изучения и практики английского языка в увлекательной игровой форме. Junyschool (Джунискул) – международная школа программирования и дизайна для детей и подростков от 5 до 17 лет, где ученики осваивают компьютерную грамотность, развивают алгоритмическое и креативное мышление, изучают основы программирования и компьютерной графики, создают собственные проекты: игры, сайты, программы, приложения, анимации, 3D-модели, монтируют видео. Умназия - Интерактивные онлайн-курсы и тренажеры для развития мышления детей 6-13 лет SkillBox - это один из лидеров российского рынка онлайн-образования. Среди партнеров Skillbox ведущий разработчик сервисного дизайна AIC, медиа-компания Yoola, первое и самое крупное русскоязычное аналитическое агентство Tagline, онлайн-школа дизайна и иллюстрации Bang! Bang! Education, оператор PR-рынка PACO, студия рисования Draw&Go, агентство performance-маркетинга Ingate, scrum-студия Sibirix, имидж-лаборатория Персона. «Нетология» — это университет по подготовке и дополнительному обучению специалистов в области интернет-маркетинга, управления проектами и продуктами, дизайна, Data Science и разработки. В рамках Нетологии студенты получают ценные теоретические знания от лучших экспертов Рунета, выполняют практические задания на отработку полученных навыков, общаются с экспертами и единомышленниками. Познакомиться со всеми продуктами подробнее можно на сайте https://netology.ru, линейка курсов и профессий постоянно обновляется. StudyBay Brazil – это онлайн биржа для португалоговорящих студентов и авторов! Студент получает уникальную работу любого уровня сложности и больше свободного времени, в то время как у автора появляется дополнительный заработок и бесценный опыт. Автор24 — самая большая в России площадка по написанию учебных работ: контрольные и курсовые работы, дипломы, рефераты, решение задач, отчеты по практике, а так же любой другой вид работы. Сервис сотрудничает с более 70 000 авторов. Более 1 000 000 работ уже выполнено. StudyBay – это онлайн биржа для англоязычных студентов и авторов! Студент получает уникальную работу любого уровня сложности и больше свободного времени, в то время как у автора появляется дополнительный заработок и бесценный опыт.