Английская Википедия:Indian subcontinent

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Hatnote group Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Use Oxford spelling

Шаблон:Infobox continent

The Indian subcontinentШаблон:Refn is a physiographical region in Southern Asia, mostly situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian Ocean from the Himalayas. Geopolitically, it spans major landmasses from the countries of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India,Шаблон:Refn the Maldives,Шаблон:Refn Nepal,Шаблон:Refn Pakistan,Шаблон:Refn and Sri Lanka.Шаблон:Refn[1][2][3][4] Although the terms "Indian subcontinent" and "South Asia" are often used interchangeably to denote the region,[5] the geopolitical term of South Asia frequently includes Afghanistan, which is not considered part of the subcontinent.[6]

Geologically, the subcontinent originates from Insular India, an isolated landmass that rifted from the supercontinent of Gondwana during the Cretaceous and merged with the landmass of Eurasia nearly 55 million years ago, forming the Himalayas.[7] Historically, as well as to the present day, it is and has been the most populated region in the world, holding roughly 20–25 percent of the global population at all times in history. Geographically, it is the peninsular region in Southern Asia located below the Third Pole, delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west, and the Indo-Burman Ranges in the east.[8] The neighboring geographical regions around the subcontinent include the Tibetan Plateau to the north, the Indochinese Peninsula to the east, and the Iranian Plateau to the west and the Indian Ocean to the south.

Name

In many historical sources, the region surrounding and southeast of the Indus River was referred to simply as "India".[9] Historians continue to use this term to refer to the whole of the Indian subcontinent in discussions of history up until the era of the British Raj.[9] During this period, "India" came to refer to a distinct political entity that later became a nation-state.[9]

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term subcontinent signifies a "subdivision of a continent which has a distinct geographical, political, or cultural identity" and also a "large land mass somewhat smaller than a continent".[10][11] Its use to signify the Indian subcontinent is evidenced from the early twentieth century when most of the territory was either part of the British Empire or allied with them.[12][13] It was a convenient term to refer to the region comprising both British India and the princely states.[14][15]

The term has been particularly common in the British Empire and its successors,[16] while the term South Asia is the more common usage in Europe and North America.[17][18] According to historians Sugata Bose and Ayesha Jalal, the Indian subcontinent has come to be known as South Asia "in more recent and neutral parlance".[19] Indologist Ronald B. Inden argues that the usage of the term South Asia is becoming more widespread since it clearly distinguishes the region from East Asia.[20] While South Asia, a more accurate term that reflects the region's contemporary political demarcations, is replacing the Indian subcontinent, a term closely linked to the region's colonial heritage, as a cover term, the latter is still widely used in typological studies.[21][22]

Since the Partition of India, citizens of Pakistan (which became independent of British India in 1947) and Bangladesh (which became independent of Pakistan in 1971) often perceive the use of the Indian subcontinent as offensive and suspicious because of the dominant placement of India in the term. As such it is being increasingly less used in those countries.Шаблон:Refn Meanwhile, many Indian analysts prefer to use the term because of the socio-cultural commonalities of the region.[23] The region has also been called the "Asian subcontinent",[24][25] the "South Asian subcontinent",[26][27][28] as well as "India" or "Greater India" in the classical and pre-modern sense.[5][6][29][30]

Geology

Шаблон:Multiple image

Файл:Himalaya-formation.gif
Due to plate tectonics, the Indian Plate split from Madagascar and collided (c. 55 Mya) with the Eurasian Plate, resulting in the formation of the Himalayas.

The Indian subcontinent was formerly part of Gondwana, a supercontinent formed during the late Neoproterozoic and early Paleozoic.[7] Gondwana began to break up during the Mesozoic, with Insular India separating from Antarctica 130-120 million years ago[31] and Madagascar around 90 million years ago,[32] during the Cretaceous. Insular India subsequently drifted northeastwards, colliding with the Eurasian Plate nearly 55 million years ago, during the Eocene, forming the Indian subcontinent.[7] The zone where the Eurasian and Indian subcontinent plates meet remains geologically active, prone to major earthquakes.[33][34]

Physiographically, it is a peninsular region in South Asia delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west, and the Arakanese in the east.[8][35] It extends southward into the Indian Ocean with the Arabian Sea to the southwest and the Bay of Bengal to the southeast.[1][36] Most of this region rests on the Indian Plate and is isolated from the rest of Asia by large mountain barriers.[37] Laccadive Islands, Maldives and the Chagos Archipelago are three series of coral atolls, cays and Faroes on the Indian plate along with the Chagos–Laccadive Ridge, a submarine ridge that was generated by the northern drift of the Indian Plate over the Réunion hotspot during the Cretaceous and early Cenozoic times.[38][39][40] The Maldives archipelago rises from a basement of volcanic basalt outpourings from a depth of about 2000 m forming the central part of the ridge between Laccadives and the Great Chagos Bank.[40]

Geography

Файл:Confluence of Zansakr and Indus River.jpg
The Indus is a major river of the north-west of the Indian subcontinent

According to anthropologist Patrap C. Dutta, "the Indian subcontinent occupies the major landmass of South Asia."[41] According to historian B. N. Mukherjee, "The subcontinent is an indivisible geographical entity."[42] According to geographer Dudley Stamp, "there is perhaps no mainland part of the world better marked off by nature as a region or a 'realm' by itself than the Indian subcontinent."[43]

This natural physical landmass in South Asia is the dry-land portion of the Indian Plate, which has been relatively isolated from the rest of Eurasia.[44] The Himalayas (from Brahmaputra River in the east to Indus River in the west), Karakoram (from Indus River in the east to Yarkand River in the west) and the Hindu Kush mountains (from Yarkand River westwards) form its northern boundary.[42][45] In the west it is bounded by parts of the mountain ranges of Hindu Kush, Spīn Ghar (Safed Koh), Sulaiman Mountains, Kirthar Mountains, Brahui range, and Pab range among others,[42] with the Western Fold Belt along the border (between the Sulaiman Range and the Chaman Fault) is the western boundary of the Indian Plate,[46] where, along the Eastern Hindu Kush, lies the Afghanistan–Pakistan border.[47] In the east, it is bounded by Patkai, Naga, Lushai and Chin hills.[42] The Indian Ocean, Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea form the boundary of the Indian subcontinent in the south, south-east and south-west.[42]

Файл:Pink sunrise in Langtang.jpg
The rocky interiors of the Himalayas

Given the difficulty of passage through the Himalayas, the sociocultural, religious and political interaction of the Indian subcontinent has largely been through the valleys of Afghanistan in its northwest,Шаблон:Citation needed the valleys of Manipur in its east, and by maritime routes.[44] More difficult but historically important interaction has also occurred through passages pioneered by the Tibetans. These routes and interactions have led to the spread of Buddhism out of the subcontinent into other parts of Asia. The Islamic expansion arrived into the subcontinent in two ways: through Afghanistan on land, and to the Indian coast through the maritime routes on the Arabian Sea.[44]

Geopolitics

In terms of modern geopolitical boundaries, the subcontinent constitutes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, and Pakistan, besides, by convention, the island country of Sri Lanka and other nearby island nations of the Indian Ocean, such as Maldives and Шаблон:CnsШаблон:Or[2][3][48][49][50] Unlike "South Asia" sometimes the expression "Indian subcontinent" may exclude the islands of Maldives and Sri Lanka.[5] According to Chris Brewster and Wolfgang Mayrhofer, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bhutan constitute the Indian subcontinent. Brewster and Mayrhofer also maintain that with Afghanistan and Maldives included the region is referred to as South Asia.[51] The periphery of the subcontinent, including Pakistan, Bangladesh and the island chains of the Maldives, features large Muslim populations, while the heartland, including most of India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka, are overwhelmingly Hindu or Buddhist.[52] Since most of these countries are located on the Indian Plate, a continuous landmass, the borders between countries are often either a river or a no man's land.[53]

The precise definition of an "Indian subcontinent" in a geopolitical context is somewhat contested as there is no globally accepted definition on which countries are a part of South Asia or the Indian subcontinent.[54][55][56][4] Whether called the Indian subcontinent or South Asia, the definition of the geographical extent of this region varies.[29][30] Afghanistan, despite often considered as a part of South Asia, is usually not included in the Indian subcontinent.[54][57][58][59][60] Maldives, an island country consisting of a small archipelago southwest of the peninsula, while largely considered a part of the Indian subcontinent,[3] sometimes is mentioned by sources, including the International Monetary Fund, as a group of islands away from the Indian subcontinent in a south-western direction.[61][62]

See also

Notes

Шаблон:Reflist

References

Шаблон:Commons category Шаблон:Reflist

Шаблон:South Asian topics Шаблон:Continents of Earth Шаблон:Regions of the world

Шаблон:Authority control

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  1. ↑ 1,0 1,1 "Indian subcontinent". New Oxford Dictionary of English (Шаблон:ISBN) New York: Oxford University Press, 2001; p. 929: "the part of Asia south of the Himalayas which forms a peninsula extending into the Indian Ocean, between the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. Historically forming the whole territory of Greater India, the region is now divided into three countries named Bangladesh, India and Pakistan."
  2. ↑ 2,0 2,1 Шаблон:Cite book
  3. ↑ 3,0 3,1 3,2 Шаблон:Cite book
  4. ↑ 4,0 4,1 Шаблон:Cite book
  5. ↑ 5,0 5,1 5,2 Шаблон:Cite book Note: McLeod does not include Afghanistan in the Indian subcontinent or South Asia.
  6. ↑ 6,0 6,1 Jim Norwine & Alfonso González, The Third World: states of mind and being, pages 209, Taylor & Francis, 1988, Шаблон:ISBN Quote: ""The term "South Asia" also signifies the Indian Subcontinent""
    Raj S. Bhopal, Ethnicity, race, and health in multicultural societies, pages 33, Oxford University Press, 2007, Шаблон:ISBN; Quote: "The term South Asian refers to populations originating from the Indian subcontinent, effectively India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka;
    Lucian W. Pye & Mary W. Pye, Asian Power and Politics, pages 133, Harvard University Press, 1985, Шаблон:ISBN Quote: "The complex culture of the Indian subcontinent, or South Asia, presents a tradition comparable to Confucianism."
    Mark Juergensmeyer, The Oxford handbook of global religions, pages 465, Oxford University Press US, 2006, Шаблон:ISBN
    Sugata Bose & Ayesha Jalal, Modern South Asia, page 3, Routledge, 2004, Шаблон:ISBN
  7. ↑ 7,0 7,1 7,2 Шаблон:Cite book
  8. ↑ 8,0 8,1 Шаблон:Citation
  9. ↑ 9,0 9,1 9,2 Шаблон:Cite web
  10. ↑ Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged, Merriam-Webster, 2002. Retrieved 6 December 2016; Quote: "a large landmass smaller than a continent; especially: a major subdivision of a continent ! e Indian subcontinent | "
  11. ↑ Subcontinent, Oxford English Dictionaries (2012). Retrieved 6 December 2016; Quote: "A large distinguishable part of a continent..."
  12. ↑ Milton Walter Meyer, South Asia: A Short History of the Subcontinent, pages 1, Adams Littlefield, 1976, Шаблон:ISBN
  13. ↑ "Indian subcontinent" is used by Henry D. Baker, British India With Notes On Ceylon Afghanistan And Tibet (1915), p. 401.
  14. ↑ Шаблон:Cite OED
  15. ↑ Шаблон:Cite OED
  16. ↑ Milton Walter Meyer, South Asia: A Short History of the Subcontinent, pages 1, Adams Littlefield, 1976, Шаблон:ISBN
    Jim Norwine & Alfonso González, The Third World: states of mind and being, pages 209, Taylor & Francis, 1988, Шаблон:ISBN
    Шаблон:Cite book
    Judith Schott & Alix Henley, Culture, Religion, and Childbearing in a Multiracial Society, pages 274, Elsevier Health Sciences, 1996, Шаблон:ISBN
    Raj S. Bhopal, Ethnicity, race, and health in multicultural societies, pages 33, Oxford University Press, 2007, Шаблон:ISBN
    Lucian W. Pye & Mary W. Pye, Asian Power and Politics, pages 133, Harvard University Press, 1985, Шаблон:ISBN
    Mark Juergensmeyer, The Oxford handbook of global religions, pages 465, Oxford University Press US, 2006, Шаблон:ISBN
  17. ↑ Judith Schott & Alix Henley, Culture, Religion, and Childbearing in a Multiracial Society, pages 274, Elsevier Health Sciences, 1996, Шаблон:ISBN
  18. ↑ Raj S. Bhopal, Ethnicity, race, and health in multicultural societies, pages 33, Oxford University Press, 2007, Шаблон:ISBN
  19. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  20. ↑ Ronald B. Inden, Imagining India, page 51, C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 2000, Шаблон:ISBN
  21. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  22. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  23. ↑ B.H. Farmer, An Introduction to South Asia, page 1, Methuen and Co. Ltd., 1983, Шаблон:ISBN, "The 'Indian sub continent' is a term that certainly recognises the dominant position of India in both area and population. Since the partition of Indian Empire, use of this term becomes offensive to the Pakistanis and the Bangladeshis."
    Jona Razzaque, Public Interest Environmental Litigation in India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, page 3, Kluwer Law International, 2004, Шаблон:ISBN "Yet, because citizens of Pakistan (which was carved out of India in 1947 and has had recurring conflicts with India since then) and of Bangladesh (which became separated from Pakistan by civil war in 1971) might find offensive the dominant placement of India in the term "Indian subcontinent", many scholars today prefer the more recently adopted designation 'South Asia.'"
    Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby, Religions of South Asia: An Introduction, page 3, Routledge, 2006, Шаблон:ISBN
    S K Shah, India and Its Neighbours: Renewed Threats and New Directions, page 26, Vij Books India Pvt Ltd, 2017, Шаблон:ISBN "Indian analysts, who talk of the Indian sub-continent, wish to keep in mind, in their analyses, the common historical, political, religious and cultural heritage of these three countries. The term sub-continent is used less and less in Pakistan and Bangladesh. The political leadership and the policy-makers in these two countries do not wish to be reminded of this common heritage. Any highlighting of this common heritage by Indian analysts is viewed by them with suspicion—— as indicating a hidden desire to reverse history and undo the 1947 partition."
  24. ↑ Lizzie Crouch and Paula McGrath, "Humanity's global battle with mosquitoes", Health check, BBC World Service
  25. ↑ K. Alan Kronstadt, Terrorist Attacks in Mumbai, India, and Implications for U. S. Interests, page 7, Diane Publishing, 2011, Шаблон:ISBN
  26. ↑ Aijazuddin Ahmad, Geography of the South Asian subcontinent: A Critical Approach, page 17, Concept Publishing Company, 2009, Шаблон:ISBN
  27. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  28. ↑ K. D. Kapur, Nuclear Non-proliferation Diplomacy: Nuclear Power Programmes in the Third World, page 365, Lancers Books, 1993, Шаблон:ISBN|Daya Nath Tripathi (ed), Discourse on Indo European Languages and Culture, page 193, Indian Council of Historical Research, 2005, Шаблон:ISBN
    Muhammad Akram Khan, What Is Wrong with Islamic Economics?: Analysing the Present State and Future Agenda, page 183, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2013, Шаблон:ISBN
  29. ↑ 29,0 29,1 Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby, Religions of South Asia: An Introduction, page 3, Routledge, 2006, Шаблон:ISBN
  30. ↑ 30,0 30,1 Kathleen M. Baker and Graham P. Chapman, The Changing Geography of Asia, page 10, Routledge, 2002, Шаблон:ISBN
  31. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  32. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  33. ↑ Шаблон:Cite encyclopedia
  34. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  35. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  36. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  37. ↑ Шаблон:Cite encyclopedia
  38. ↑ E. Bredow, R. Gassmöller, J. Dannberg and B. Steinberger, Geodynamic Models of Plume-Ridge Interaction in the Indian Ocean and its Effect on the Crustal Thickness of the Réunion Hotspot Track (abstract), Astrophysics Data System (ADS), Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics
  39. ↑ T.R. McClanahan, C.R.C. Sheppard and D.O. Obura, Coral Reefs of the Indian Ocean: Their Ecology and Conservation, page 327, Oxford University Press, 2000, Шаблон:ISBN
  40. ↑ 40,0 40,1 Rudie H. Kuiter and Timothy Godfrey, Fishes of the Maldives – Indian Ocean, page 1, Atoll Editions, 2014, Шаблон:ISBN
  41. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  42. ↑ 42,0 42,1 42,2 42,3 42,4 Bratindra Nath Mukherjee, Nationhood and Statehood in India: A historical survey, page 4, Regency Publications, 2001, Шаблон:ISBN
  43. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  44. ↑ 44,0 44,1 44,2 Шаблон:Citation
  45. ↑ Samiul Hasan, The Muslim World in the 21st Century: Space, Power, and Human Development, page 84, Springer Science & Business Media, 2012, Шаблон:ISBN
  46. ↑ S. Mukherjee, R. Carosi, P.A. van der Beek, B.K. Mukherjee and D.M. Robinson (ed.), Tectonics of the Himalaya, Geological Society of London, 2015, Шаблон:ISBN
  47. ↑ Шаблон:Cite encyclopedia
  48. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  49. ↑ Stephen Adolphe Wurm, Peter Mühlhäusler & Darrell T. Tryon, Atlas of languages of intercultural communication in the Pacific, Asia, and the Americas, pages 787, International Council for Philosophy and Humanistic Studies, Published by Walter de Gruyter, 1996, Шаблон:ISBN
    Шаблон:Cite book
  50. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  51. ↑ Chris Brewster and Wolfgang Mayrhofer, Handbook of Research on Comparative Human Resource Management, page 576, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2012, Шаблон:ISBN
  52. ↑ Salma K. Jayyusi, Renata Holod, Attilio Petruccioli and Andre Raymond, The City in the Islamic World, page 198, BRILL, 2008, Шаблон:ISBN
  53. ↑ Chandra K. Sharma, Geology of Nepal Himalaya and Adjacent Countries, page 14, Sangeeta Sharma Books, 1990, ASIN B0006EWSCI
  54. ↑ 54,0 54,1 Шаблон:Cite book, Quote: "To the east, Iran, as a Gulf state, offers a generally accepted limit to the Middle East. However, Afghanistan, also a Muslim state, is then left in isolation. It is not accepted as a part of Central Asia and it is clearly not part of the Indian subcontinent".
  55. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  56. ↑ Akhilesh Pillalamarri, South Asia or India: An Old Debate Resurfaces in California, The Diplomat, 24 May 2016;
    Шаблон:Citation
  57. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  58. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  59. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  60. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  61. ↑ Ludwig Paul, Persian Origins, page 31, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2003, Шаблон:ISBN, "Maldive Islands which are scattered about the sea south-west of the Indian subcontinent, extending over more than 1,000km in a north-south direction."
  62. ↑ Legal Department, International Monetary Fund, Maldives: Detailed Assessment Report on Anti-Money Laundering and Combating the Financing of Terrorism, page 15, International Monetary Fund, 2012, Шаблон:ISBN, "Maldives is the smallest Asian country in both population and land area. Its closest neighbors to the north are India's Laccadive Islands. To the northeast is the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka. To the south it borders the British Indian Occan Territory. About 2.600 kilometers (1,600 miles) further east, across the Indian Ocean, is Malaysia. To the west, the Horn of Africa is approximatcly 3,000 kilometers (1,300 miles) away."
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