Английская Википедия:Inland Northern American English
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Use mdy dates
Шаблон:Listen Шаблон:Listen Шаблон:IPA notice Inland Northern (American) English,Шаблон:Sfnp also known in American linguistics as the Inland North or Great Lakes dialect,[1] is an American English dialect spoken primarily by White Americans in a geographic band reaching from the major urban areas of Upstate New York westward along the Erie Canal and through much of the U.S. Great Lakes region. The most distinctive Inland Northern accents are spoken in Chicago, Milwaukee, Detroit, Cleveland, Buffalo, Rochester, and Syracuse.Шаблон:Sfnp The dialect can be heard as far west as eastern Iowa and even among certain demographics in the Twin Cities, Minnesota.[2] Some of its features have also infiltrated a geographic corridor from Chicago southwest along historic Route 66 into St. Louis, Missouri; today, the corridor shows a mixture of both Inland North and Midland American accents.Шаблон:Sfnp Linguists often characterize the western Great Lakes region's dialect separately as North-Central American English.
The early 20th-century accent of the Inland North was the basis for the term "General American",Шаблон:Sfnp[3] though the regional accent has since altered, due to the Northern Cities Vowel Shift: its now-defining chain shift of vowels that began in the 1930s or possibly earlier.[4] A 1969 study first formally showed lower-middle-class women leading the regional population in the first two stages (raising of the Шаблон:Sc2 vowel and fronting of the Шаблон:Sc2 vowel) of this shift, documented since the 1970s as comprising five distinct stages.Шаблон:Sfnp But evidence since the mid-2010s suggests a retreat from the Northern Cities Shift's features in many Inland Northern cities.[5][6][7] Various common names for the accent exist, often based on city, for example: Chicago accent, Detroit accent, Milwaukee accent, etc.
Geographic distribution
The dialect region called the "Inland North" consists of western and central New York State (Utica, Ithaca, Syracuse, Rochester, Buffalo, Binghamton, Jamestown, Fredonia, Olean); northern Ohio (Akron, Cleveland, Toledo), Michigan's Lower Peninsula (Detroit, Flint, Grand Rapids, Lansing); northern Indiana (Gary, South Bend); northern Illinois (Chicago, Rockford); southeastern Wisconsin (Kenosha, Racine, Milwaukee); and, largely, northeastern Pennsylvania's Wyoming Valley/Coal Region (Scranton and Wilkes-Barre). This is the dialect spoken in part of America's chief industrial region, an area sometimes known as the Rust Belt. Northern Iowa and southern Minnesota may also variably fall within the Inland North dialect region; in the Twin Cities, educated middle-aged men in particular have been documented as aligning to the accent, though this is not necessarily the case among other demographics of that urban area.[2]
Linguists identify the "St. Louis Corridor", extending from Chicago down into St. Louis, as a dialectally remarkable area, because young and old speakers alike have a Midland accent, except for a single middle generation born between the 1920s and 1940s, who have an Inland Northern accent diffused into the area from Chicago.[8]
Erie, Pennsylvania, though in the geographic area of the "Inland North" and featuring some speakers of this dialect, never underwent the Northern Cities Shift and often shares more features with Western Pennsylvania English due to contact with Pittsburghers, particularly with Erie as their choice of city for summer vacations.[9] Many African Americans in Detroit and other Northern cities are multidialectal and also or exclusively use African-American Vernacular English rather than Inland Northern English, but some do use the Inland Northern dialect.
Social factors
The dialect's progression across the Midwest has stopped at a general boundary line traveling through central Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois and then western Wisconsin, on the other sides of which speakers have continued to maintain their Midland and North Central accents. Sociolinguist William Labov theorizes that this separation reflects a political divide and a controlled study of his shows that Inland Northern speakers tend to be more associated with liberal politics than those of the other dialects, especially as Americans continue to self-segregate in residence based on ideological concerns.[10] President Barack Obama, for example, has a mild Inland Northern accent.[10]
Phonology and phonetics
| Pure vowels (Monophthongs) | ||
|---|---|---|
| English diaphoneme | Inland Northern realization | Example words |
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | bath, trap, man |
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | blah, father, spa |
| Шаблон:IPA† | lot, bother, wasp | |
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | dog, loss, off |
| all, bought, saw | ||
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | dress, met, bread |
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | about, syrup, arena |
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | hit, skim, tip |
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | beam, chic, fleet |
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | bus, flood, what |
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | book, put, should |
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | food, glue, new |
| Diphthongs | ||
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | ride, shine, try |
| [[Canadian raising|Шаблон:IPA]] | bright, dice, fire | |
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | now, ouch, scout |
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | lame, rein, stain |
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | boy, choice, moist |
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | goat, oh, show |
| R-colored vowels | ||
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | barn, car, park |
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | fear, peer, tier |
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | bare, bear, there |
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | burn, doctor, first, herd, learn, murder |
| Шаблон:IPA | ||
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | hoarse, horse, war |
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | poor, tour, lure |
| Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | cure, Europe, pure |
| Шаблон:Hidden beginWhen followed by Шаблон:IPA, the historic Шаблон:IPA is pronounced entirely differently by Inland North speakers as Шаблон:IPA, for example, in the words orange, forest, and torrent. The only exceptions to this are the words tomorrow, sorry, sorrow, borrow and, for some speakers, morrow, which use the sound Шаблон:IPA. This is all true of General American speakers too.Шаблон:Hidden end | ||
A Midwestern accent (which may refer to other dialectal accents as well), Chicago accent, or Great Lakes accent are all common names in the United States for the sound quality produced by speakers of this dialect. Many of the characteristics listed here are not necessarily unique to the region and are oftentimes found elsewhere in the Midwest.
Northern Cities vowel shift
The Northern Cities vowel shift or simply Northern Cities shift is a chain shift of vowels and the defining accent feature of the Inland North dialect region, though it can also be found, variably, in the neighboring Upper Midwest and Western New England accent regions.
Tensing of Шаблон:Sc2 and fronting of Шаблон:Sc2
The first two sound changes in the shift, with some debate about which one led to the other or came first,[12] are the general raising and lengthening (tensing) of the "short a" (the vowel sound of Шаблон:Sc2, typically rendered Шаблон:IPA in American transcriptions), as well as the fronting of the sound of Шаблон:Sc2 or Шаблон:Sc2 in this accent (typically transcribed Шаблон:IPA) towards Шаблон:IPAblink or Шаблон:IPAblink. Inland Northern Шаблон:Sc2 raising was first identified in the 1960s,[13] with that vowel becoming articulated with the tongue beginning higher than before, and then gliding back toward the center of the mouth, thus producing a centering diphthong of the type Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, or at its most extreme Шаблон:IPA; e.g. naturally Шаблон:Audio-IPA. As for Шаблон:Sc2 fronting, it can go beyond Шаблон:IPAblink to the front Шаблон:IPAblink, and may, for the most advanced speakers, even be close to Шаблон:IPAblink—so that pot or sod come to be pronounced how a mainstream American speaker would say pat or sad; e.g. coupon Шаблон:Audio-IPA.
Lowering of Шаблон:Sc2
The fronting of Шаблон:Sc2 vowel leaves a blank space in Inland North speakers' pronunciation that is filled by lowering the "aw" vowel in Шаблон:Sc2 (Шаблон:IPAblink in General American varieties that resist the cot–caught merger), which comes to be pronounced with the tongue in a lower position, closer to Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA. As a result, for example, people affected by the shift may pronounce caught the way speakers without the shift say cot, with both using the vowel Шаблон:IPA. However, a cot–caught merger is robustly avoided in many parts of Inland North, due to the prior fronting of Шаблон:IPA. In other words, cot is Шаблон:IPA and caught is Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp Even so, however, there is a definite scattering of Inland North speakers who are in a state of transition towards a cot–caught merger; this is particularly evident in northeastern Pennsylvania.Шаблон:Sfnp[14] Younger speakers reversing the fronting of Шаблон:IPA, for example in Lansing, Michigan, also approach a merger.[5]
Backing or lowering of Шаблон:Sc2
The movement of Шаблон:IPA to Шаблон:IPA, in order to avoid overlap, presumably initiates further backing, lowering, or a combination of both, with regard to the original Шаблон:IPA vowel (the "short e" in Шаблон:Sc2, Шаблон:IPAblink in General American) toward either Шаблон:IPA, the near-open central vowel, or almost Шаблон:IPA.[5]
Backing of Шаблон:Sc2
The next change is the movement of Шаблон:IPA (the Шаблон:Sc2 vowel) from Шаблон:IPAblink a central position toward a very far back position Шаблон:IPA. People with the shift pronounce bus so that it sounds more like boss to people without the shift.
Backing or lowering of Шаблон:Sc2
The final change is the backing and lowering of Шаблон:IPA, the "short i" vowel in Шаблон:Sc2, toward the schwa Шаблон:IPA. Alternatively, Шаблон:Sc2 is lowered to Шаблон:IPAblink, without backing. This results in a considerable phonetic overlap between Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, although there is no phonemic [[Phonological history of English close front vowels#Centralised KIT|Шаблон:Sc2 merger]] because the weak vowel merger is not complete ("Rosa's" Шаблон:IPA, with a morpheme-final mid schwa Шаблон:IPAblink is distinct from "roses" Шаблон:IPA, with an unstressed allophone of Шаблон:Sc2 that is phonetically near-close central Шаблон:IPAblink).Шаблон:Sfnp
Vowels before Шаблон:IPA
Before Шаблон:IPA, only Шаблон:IPA undergoes the Northern Cities Vowel Shift, so that the vowel in start Шаблон:IPA varies much like the one in lot Шаблон:IPA described above. The remaining Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA retain GenAm-like values in this position, so that north Шаблон:IPA, merry Шаблон:IPA and near Шаблон:IPA are pronounced Шаблон:IPA, with unshifted Шаблон:Sc2 (though somewhat closer than in GenAm), Шаблон:Sc2 and Шаблон:Sc2 (as close as in GenAm). Inland Northern American English features the north-force merger, the Mary-marry-merry merger, the [[Mirror–nearer and /ʊr/–/uːr/ mergers|mirror–nearer and Шаблон:IPA–Шаблон:IPA mergers]], the hurry-furry merger, and the nurse-letter merger, all of which are typical of most General American English.Шаблон:Sfnp
History of the Northern Cities Vowel Shift
William Labov et al.'s Atlas of North American English (2006) presents the first historical understanding of the order in which the Inland North's vowels shifted. Speakers around the Great Lakes began to pronounce the short a sound, Шаблон:IPA as in Шаблон:Sc2, as more of a diphthong and with a higher starting point in the mouth, causing the same word to sound more like "tray-ap" or "tray-up"; Labov et al. assume that this began by the middle of the 19th century.Шаблон:Sfnp After roughly a century following this first vowel change—general Шаблон:IPA raising—the region's speakers, around the 1960s, then began to use the newly opened vowel space, previously occupied by Шаблон:IPA, for Шаблон:IPA (as in Шаблон:Sc2 and Шаблон:Sc2); therefore, words like bot, gosh, or lock came to be pronounced with the tongue extended farther forward, thus making these words sound more like how bat, gash, and lack sound in dialects without the shift. These two vowel changes were first recognized and reported in 1967.Шаблон:Sfnp While these were certainly the first two vowel shifts of this accent, and Labov et al. assume that Шаблон:IPA raising occurred first, they also admit that the specifics of time and place are unclear.Шаблон:Sfnp In fact, real-time evidence of a small number of Chicagoans born between 1890 and 1920 suggests that Шаблон:IPA fronting occurred first, starting by 1900 at the latest, and was followed by Шаблон:IPA raising sometime in the 1920s.[12]
During the 1960s, several more vowels followed suit in rapid succession, each filling in the space left by the last, including the lowering of Шаблон:IPA as in Шаблон:Sc2, the backing and lowering of Шаблон:IPA as in Шаблон:Sc2, the backing of Шаблон:IPA as in Шаблон:Sc2 (first reported in 1986),[15] and the backing and lowering of Шаблон:IPA as in Шаблон:Sc2, often but not always in that exact order. Altogether, this constitutes the Northern Cities Shift, identified by linguists as such in 1972.[10]
Possible motivations for the Shift
Migrants from all over the Northeastern U.S. traveled west to the rapidly industrializing Great Lakes area in the decades after the Erie Canal opened in 1825, and Labov suggests that the Inland North's general Шаблон:IPA raising originated from the diverse and incompatible /æ/ raising patterns of these various migrants mixing into a new, simpler pattern.[16] He posits that this hypothetical dialect-mixing event, which initiated the larger Northern Cities Shift (NCS), occurred by about 1860 in upstate New York,Шаблон:Sfnp and the later stages of the NCS are merely those that logically followed (a "pull chain"). More recent evidence suggests that German-accented English helped to greatly influence the Shift, because German speakers tend to pronounce the English Шаблон:Sc2 vowel as Шаблон:IPA and the Шаблон:Sc2 vowel as Шаблон:IPA, both of which resemble NCS vowels, and there were more speakers of German in the Erie Canal region of upstate New York in 1850 than there were of any single variety of English.Шаблон:Sfnp There is also evidence for an alternative theory, according to which the Great Lakes area—settled primarily by western New Englanders—simply inherited Western New England English and developed that dialect's vowel shifts further. 20th-century Western New England English variably showed NCS-like Шаблон:Sc2 and Шаблон:Sc2 pronunciations, which may have already existed among 19th-century New England settlers, though this has been contested.Шаблон:Sfnp Another theory, not mutually exclusive with the others, is that the Great Migration of African Americans intensified White Northerners' participation in the NCS in order to differentiate their accents from Black ones.[17]
Reversals of the Shift
Recent evidence suggests that the Shift has largely begun to reverse in many cities of the Inland North,[5][6] such as Lansing,[5] Ogdensburg, Rochester, Syracuse,[6][18][19] Detroit, Buffalo, Chicago, and Eau Claire.[7] In particular, Шаблон:IPA fronting and Шаблон:IPA raising (though raising is persisting before nasal consonants, as is the General American norm) have now reversed among younger speakers in these areas. Several possible reasons have been proposed for the reversal, including growing stigma connected with the accent and the working-class identity it represents.[20]
Other phonetics
- Rhoticity: As in General American, Inland North speech is rhotic, and the r sound is typically the retroflex Шаблон:IPA or perhaps, more accurately, a bunched or molar Шаблон:IPA.
- Canadian raising: The raising of the tongue for the nucleus of the gliding vowel Шаблон:IPA is found in the Inland North when the vowel sound appears before any voiceless consonant, thus distinguishing, for example, between rider and writer by vowel quality (Шаблон:Audio).Шаблон:Sfnp In the Inland North, unlike some other dialects, the raising occurs even before certain voiced consonants, including in the words fire, tiger, iron, and spider. When it is not subject to raising, the nucleus of Шаблон:IPA is pronounced with the tongue further to the front of the mouth than most other American dialects, as Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA; however, in the Inland North speech of Pennsylvania, the nucleus is centralized as in General American, thus: Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp
- The nucleus of Шаблон:IPA may be more backed than in other common North American accents (towards Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA).
- The nucleus of Шаблон:IPA (as in go and boat), like Шаблон:IPA, tends to be conservative, not undergoing the fronting common in the vast American southeastern super-region. Likewise, the traditionally high back vowel Шаблон:IPA is conservative, less fronted in the North than in other American regions, though it still undergoes some fronting after coronal consonants.Шаблон:Sfnp Also, Шаблон:IPA, along with Шаблон:IPA, can traditionally manifest as monophthongs: Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, respectively.[21]
- The vowel in Шаблон:IPA can raise toward Шаблон:IPA in words like beg, negative, or segment, except in Michigan.[22]
- Working-class th-stopping: The two sounds represented by the spelling th—Шаблон:IPA (as in thin) and Шаблон:IPA (as in those)—may shift from fricative consonants to stop consonants among urban and working-class speakers: thus, for example, thin may approach the sound of tin (using Шаблон:IPA) and those may merge to the sound of doze (using Шаблон:IPA).[23] This was parodied in the Saturday Night Live comedy sketch "Bill Swerski's Superfans," in which characters hailing from Chicago pronounce "The Bears" as "Da Bears."[24]
- Caramel is typically pronounced with two syllables as carmel.[25]
Vocabulary
Шаблон:See also Note that not all of these terms, here compared with their counterparts in other regions, are necessarily unique only to the Inland North, though they appear most strongly in this region:[25]
- boulevard as a synonym for island (in the sense of a grassy area in the middle of some streets)
- crayfish for a freshwater crustacean
- drinking fountain as a synonym for water fountain
- expressway as a synonym for highway
- faucet for an indoor water tap (not Southern spigot)
- goose pimples as a synonym for goose bumps
- pit for the seed of a peach (not Southern stone or seed)
- pop for a sweet, bubbly soft drink (not Eastern and Californian soda, nor Southern coke)
- The "soda/pop line" has been found to run through Western New York State (Buffalo residents say pop, Syracuse residents say soda now but used to say pop until sometime in the 1970s, and Rochester residents say either. Eastern Wisconsinites around Milwaukee and some Chicagoans are also an exception, using the word soda.)
- sucker for a lollipop (hard candy on a stick)
- teeter totter as a synonym for seesaw
- tennis shoes for generic athletic shoes (not Northeastern sneakers, except in New York State and Pennsylvania)
Individual cities and sub-regions also have their own terms; for example:
- bubbler, in a large portion of Wisconsin around Milwaukee, for water fountain (in addition to the synonym drinking fountain, also possible throughout the Inland North)
- cash station, in the Chicago area, for ATM
- Devil's Night, particularly in Michigan, for the night before Halloween (not Northeastern Mischief Night)[26]
- doorwalls, in Detroit, for sliding glass doors
- gapers' block or gapers' delay, in Chicago, Milwaukee and Detroit; or gawk block, in Detroit, for traffic congestion caused by rubbernecking
- gym shoes, in Chicago and Detroit, for generic athletic shoes
- party store, in Michigan, for a liquor store
- rummage sale, in Wisconsin, as a synonym for garage sale or yard sale
- treelawn, in Cleveland and Michigan; devilstrip or devil's strip in Akron, Ohio;[27] and right-of-way in Wisconsin and parkway in Chicago for the grass between the sidewalk and the street
- yous(e) or youz, in northeastern Pennsylvania around its urban center of Scranton, for you guys; in this sub-region, there is notable self-awareness of the Inland Northern dialect (locally called by various names, including "Coalspeak").[28] Youse is also found in Chicago and its hinterland, utilized as a second-person plural pronoun (similar to "y'all").
Notable lifelong native speakers
- Hillary Clinton – "playing down her flat Chicago accent"[29]
- Ron Coomer – "his South Side accent"[30]
- Joan Cusack – "a great distinctive voice" she says is due to "my Chicago accent... my A's are all flat"[31]
- Richard M. Daley – "makes no effort to tame a thick Chicago accent"[32]
- Jimmy Dore – "I think that Chicago comics like Jimmy Dore bring my Wisconsin/Chicago accent back with a vengence."[33]
- Kevin Dunn – "a blue-collar attitude and the Chicago accent to match"[34]
- David Draiman – "distinct Chicago accent"[35]
- Rahm Emanuel – "more refined (if still very Chicago)"[36]
- Dennis Farina – "rich Chicago accent"[37]
- Chris Farley – "beatific Wisconsin accent"[38]
- Robert Forster – "accent that sounded like pure Chicago—though he hailed from Rochester, N.Y."[39]
- Dennis Franz – "tough-guy Chicago accent"[40]
- Sean Giambrone – "Sean, whose Chicago accent is thick enough to cut with a knife"[41]
- John Goodman – "Goodman delivered a completely authentic Inland North accent.... It wasn't an act."[42]
- Susan Hawk – "a Midwestern truck driver whose accent and etiquette epitomized the stereotype of the tacky, abrasive, working-class character"[43]
- Mike Krzyzewski[44]
- Dennis Kucinich – "a shining example of Cleveland's version of the Inland North accent"[45]
- Bill Lipinski – "I could live only 100 miles from the gentleman from Illinois (Mr. Lipinski) and he would have an accent and I do not"[46]
- Terry McAuliffe – "that rich, unhelpful Syracuse accent"[47]
- Jim "Mr. Skin" McBride – "a clipped Chicago accent"[48]
- Michael Moore – "a Flintoid, with a nasal, uncosmopolitan accent"[49] and "a recognisable blue-collar Michigan accent"[50]
- Bob Odenkirk[51]
- Suze Orman – "broad, Midwestern accent"[52]
- Iggy Pop – "plainspoken Midwestern accent"[53]
- Paul Ryan – "may be the first candidate on a major presidential ticket to feature some of the Great Lakes vowels prominently"[54]
- Michael Symon – "Michael Symon's local accent gives him an honest, working-class vibe"[55]
- Lily Tomlin – "Tomlin's Detroit accent"[56]
- Gretchen Whitmer – "a Michigan accent probably most detectable when sheШаблон:Nbsp... flattens out her 'a' sounds with a nasal twang"[57]
See also
- List of dialects of the English language
- List of English words from indigenous languages of the Americas
- American English regional differences
- North Central American English
- Western New England English
References
Sources
External links
- Chicago Dialect Samples
- The Guide to Buffalo English. Шаблон:Webarchive.
- The Northern Cities Vowel Shift. Шаблон:Webarchive.
- NPR interview with Professor William Labov about the shift
- PBS resource from the show "Do you Speak American?"
- Select Annotated Bibliography On the Speech of Buffalo, NY. Шаблон:Webarchive.
- Telsur Project Maps
Шаблон:English dialects by continent Шаблон:Languages of the United States
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 2,0 2,1 Шаблон:Cite thesis
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite magazine
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- ↑ 6,0 6,1 6,2 Шаблон:Cite journal
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- ↑ 10,0 10,1 10,2 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 11,0 11,1 Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ 12,0 12,1 Шаблон:Cite journal
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