Occasionally, letters or diacritics are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association. As of the most recent change in 2005,[4] there are 107 segmental letters, an indefinitely large number of suprasegmental letters, 44 diacritics (not counting composites), and four extra-lexical prosodic marks in the IPA. These are illustrated in the current IPA chart, posted below in this article and at the website of the IPA.[5]
Шаблон:Main
In 1886, a group of French and British language teachers, led by the French linguist Paul Passy, formed what would be known from 1897 onwards as the International Phonetic Association (in French, Шаблон:Lang).[6] Their original alphabet was based on a spelling reform for English known as the Romic alphabet, but to make it usable for other languages the values of the symbols were allowed to vary from language to language.[7] For example, the sound Шаблон:IPAblink (the sh in shoe) was originally represented with the letter Шаблон:Angbr in English, but with the digraph Шаблон:Angbr in French.[6] In 1888, the alphabet was revised to be uniform across languages, thus providing the base for all future revisions.[6][8] The idea of making the IPA was first suggested by Otto Jespersen in a letter to Passy. It was developed by Alexander John Ellis, Henry Sweet, Daniel Jones, and Passy.[9]
Since its creation, the IPA has undergone a number of revisions. After revisions and expansions from the 1890s to the 1940s, the IPA remained primarily unchanged until the Kiel Convention in 1989. A minor revision took place in 1993 with the addition of four letters for mid central vowels[2] and the removal of letters for voiceless implosives.[10] The alphabet was last revised in May 2005 with the addition of a letter for a labiodental flap.[11] Apart from the addition and removal of symbols, changes to the IPA have consisted largely of renaming symbols and categories and in modifying typefaces.[2]
There are no letters that have context-dependent sound values, the way [[hard and soft C|Шаблон:Angbr]] and [[hard and soft G|Шаблон:Angbr]] in several European languages have a "hard" or "soft" pronunciation.
The IPA does not usually have separate letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them, a property known as "selectiveness".[2]Шаблон:NoteTag However, if a large number of phonemically distinct letters can be derived with a diacritic, that may be used instead.Шаблон:NoteTag
The alphabet is designed for transcribing sounds (phones), not phonemes, though it is used for phonemic transcription as well. A few letters that did not indicate specific sounds have been retired (Шаблон:Angbr IPA, once used for the "compound" tone of Swedish and Norwegian, and Шаблон:Angbr IPA, once used for the moraic nasal of Japanese), though one remains: Шаблон:Angbr IPA, used for the sj-sound of Swedish. When the IPA is used for phonemic transcription, the letter–sound correspondence can be rather loose. For example, Шаблон:Angbr IPA and Шаблон:Angbr IPA are used in the IPA Handbook for Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA.
Among the symbols of the IPA, 107 letters represent consonants and vowels, 31 diacritics are used to modify these, and 17 additional signs indicate suprasegmental qualities such as length, tone, stress, and intonation.Шаблон:NoteTag These are organized into a chart; the chart displayed here is the official chart as posted at the website of the IPA.
This basic Latin inventory was extended by adding small-capital and cursive forms, diacritics and rotation. The sound values of these letters are related to those of the original letters, and their derivation may be iconic.[15] For example, letters with a rightward-facing hook at the bottom represent retroflex equivalents of the source letters, and small capital letters usually represent uvular equivalents of their source letters.
Beyond the letters themselves, there are a variety of secondary symbols which aid in transcription. Diacritic marks can be combined with IPA letters to add phonetic detail such as tone and secondary articulations. There are also special symbols for prosodic features such as stress and intonation.
Brackets and transcription delimiters
Шаблон:Anchor
There are two principal types of brackets used to set off (delimit) IPA transcriptions:
Square brackets are used with phonetic notation, whether broad or narrow[17] – that is, for actual pronunciation, possibly including details of the pronunciation that may not be used for distinguishing words in the language being transcribed, which the author nonetheless wishes to document. Such phonetic notation is the primary function of the IPA.
SlashesШаблон:NoteTag are used for abstract phonemic notation,[17] which note only features that are distinctive in the language, without any extraneous detail. For example, while the 'p' sounds of English pin and spin are pronounced differently (and this difference would be meaningful in some languages), the difference is not meaningful in English. Thus, phonemically the words are usually analyzed as Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, with the same phoneme Шаблон:IPA. To capture the difference between them (the allophones of Шаблон:IPA), they can be transcribed phonetically as Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA. Phonemic notation commonly uses IPA symbols that are rather close to the default pronunciation of a phoneme, but for legibility or other reasons can use symbols that diverge from their designated values, such as Шаблон:IPA for affricates typically pronounced Шаблон:IPA, as found in the Handbook, or Шаблон:IPA, which in phonetic notation [r] represents a trill, for English r even when pronounced Шаблон:IPA.
Parentheses are used for indistinguishable[17] or unidentified utterances. They are also seen for silent articulation (mouthing),[19] where the expected phonetic transcription is derived from lip-reading, and with periods to indicate silent pauses, for example Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA. The latter usage is made official in the extIPA, with unidentified segments circled.[20]
Double parentheses indicate either a transcription of obscured speech or a description of the obscuring noise. The IPA specifies that they mark the obscured sound,[18] as in Шаблон:IPA, two audible syllables obscured by another sound. The current extIPA specifications prescribe double parentheses for the extraneous noise, such as ⸨cough⸩ or ⸨knock⸩ for a knock on a door, but the IPA Handbook identifies IPA and extIPA usage as equivalent.[21] Early publications of the extIPA explain double parentheses as marking "uncertainty because of noise which obscures the recording," and that within them "may be indicated as much detail as the transcriber can detect."[22]
All three of the above are provided by the IPA Handbook. The following are not, but may be seen in IPA transcription or in associated material (especially angle brackets):
Double square brackets are used for extra-precise (especially narrow) transcription, for example finer than is normally practicable.[23] This is consistent with the IPA convention of doubling a symbol to indicate greater degree. Double brackets may indicate that a letter has its cardinal IPA value. For example, Шаблон:IPA is an open front vowel, rather than the perhaps slightly different value (such as open central) that "Шаблон:IPA" may be used to transcribe in a particular language. Thus, two vowels transcribed for easy legibility as Шаблон:Angbr IPA and Шаблон:Angbr IPA may be clarified as actually being Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA; Шаблон:Angbr IPA may be more precisely Шаблон:IPA.[24] Double brackets may also be used for a specific token or speaker; for example, the pronunciation of a child as opposed to the adult phonetic pronunciation that is their target.[25]
Double slashes are used for morphophonemic transcription. This is also consistent with the IPA convention of doubling a symbol to indicate greater degree (in this case, more abstract than phonemic transcription).
Other symbols sometimes seen for morphophonemic transcription are pipes and double pipes, from Americanist phonetic notation; and braces from set theory, especially when enclosing the set of phonemes that constitute the morphophoneme, e.g. Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA. Only double slashes are unambiguous: both pipes and braces conflict with IPA prosodic transcription.Шаблон:NoteTag See morphophonology for examples.
Angle bracketsШаблон:NoteTag are used to mark both original Latin orthography and transliteration from another script; they are also used to identify individual graphemes of any script.[26][27] Within the IPA, they are used to indicate the IPA letters themselves rather than the sound values that they carry. Double angle brackets may occasionally be useful to distinguish original orthography from transliteration, or the idiosyncratic spelling of a manuscript from the normalized orthography of the language.
For example, Шаблон:Angbr IPA would be used for the orthography of the English word cot, as opposed to its pronunciation Шаблон:IPA. Italics are usual when words are written as themselves (as with cot in the previous sentence) rather than to specifically note their orthography. However, this is sometimes ambiguous, and italic markup is not evident to sight-impaired readers who rely on screen reader technology.
Some examples of contrasting brackets in the literature:
Шаблон:Blockquote
Шаблон:Main
IPA letters have cursive forms designed for use in manuscripts and when taking field notes, but the Handbook recommended against their use, as cursive IPA is "harder for most people to decipher."Шаблон:Sfn A braille representation of the IPA for blind or visually impaired professionals and students has also been developed.[28]
Файл:Extended IPA chart 2005.pngThe authors of textbooks or similar publications often create revised versions of the IPA chart to express their own preferences or needs. The image displays one such version. All pulmonic consonants are moved to the consonant chart. Only the black symbols are on the official IPA chart; additional symbols are in grey. The grey fricatives are part of the extIPA, and the grey retroflex letters are mentioned or implicit in the Handbook. The grey click is a retired IPA letter that is still in use.
The International Phonetic Alphabet is occasionally modified by the Association. After each modification, the Association provides an updated simplified presentation of the alphabet in the form of a chart. (See History of the IPA.) Not all aspects of the alphabet can be accommodated in a chart of the size published by the IPA. The alveolo-palatal and epiglottal consonants, for example, are not included in the consonant chart for reasons of space rather than of theory (two additional columns would be required, one between the retroflex and palatal columns and the other between the pharyngeal and glottal columns), and the lateral flap would require an additional row for that single consonant, so they are listed instead under the catchall block of "other symbols".[29] The indefinitely large number of tone letters would make a full accounting impractical even on a larger page, and only a few examples are shown, and even the tone diacritics are not complete; the reversed tone letters are not illustrated at all.
The procedure for modifying the alphabet or the chart is to propose the change in the Journal of the IPA. (See, for example, December 2008 on an open central unrounded vowel[30] and August 2011 on central approximants.)[31] Reactions to the proposal may be published in the same or subsequent issues of the Journal (as in August 2009 on the open central vowel).[32]Шаблон:Better source needed A formal proposal is then put to the Council of the IPA[33]Шаблон:Clarification needed – which is elected by the membership[34] – for further discussion and a formal vote.[35][36]
Many users of the alphabet, including the leadership of the Association itself, deviate from its standardized usage.Шаблон:NoteTag
The Journal of the IPA finds it acceptable to mix IPA and extIPA symbols in consonant charts in their articles. (For instance, including the extIPA letter [[voiceless palatal lateral fricative|Шаблон:Angbr IPA]], rather than Шаблон:Angbr IPA, in an illustration of the IPA.)[37]
Usage
Шаблон:Further
Of more than 160 IPA symbols, relatively few will be used to transcribe speech in any one language, with various levels of precision. A precise phonetic transcription, in which sounds are specified in detail, is known as a narrow transcription. A coarser transcription with less detail is called a broad transcription. Both are relative terms, and both are generally enclosed in square brackets.[1] Broad phonetic transcriptions may restrict themselves to easily heard details, or only to details that are relevant to the discussion at hand, and may differ little if at all from phonemic transcriptions, but they make no theoretical claim that all the distinctions transcribed are necessarily meaningful in the language.
Phonemic transcriptions, which express the conceptual counterparts of spoken sounds, are usually enclosed in slashes (/ /) and tend to use simpler letters with few diacritics. The choice of IPA letters may reflect theoretical claims of how speakers conceptualize sounds as phonemes or they may be merely a convenience for typesetting. Phonemic approximations between slashes do not have absolute sound values. For instance, in English, either the vowel of pick or the vowel of peak may be transcribed as Шаблон:IPA, so that pick, peak would be transcribed as Шаблон:IPA or as Шаблон:IPA; and neither is identical to the vowel of the French Шаблон:Lang which would also be transcribed Шаблон:IPA. By contrast, a narrow phonetic transcription of pick, peak, pique could be: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA.
Linguists
IPA is popular for transcription by linguists. Some American linguists, however, use a mix of IPA with Americanist phonetic notation or Sinological phonetic notation or otherwise use nonstandard symbols for various reasons.[38] Authors who employ such nonstandard use are encouraged to include a chart or other explanation of their choices, which is good practice in general, as linguists differ in their understanding of the exact meaning of IPA symbols and common conventions change over time.
The IPA is also not universal among dictionaries in languages other than English. Monolingual dictionaries of languages with phonemic orthographies generally do not bother with indicating the pronunciation of most words, and tend to use respelling systems for words with unexpected pronunciations. Dictionaries produced in Israel use the IPA rarely and sometimes use the Hebrew alphabet for transcription of foreign words.Шаблон:NoteTag Bilingual dictionaries that translate from foreign languages into Russian usually employ the IPA, but monolingual Russian dictionaries occasionally use pronunciation respelling for foreign words.Шаблон:NoteTag The IPA is more common in bilingual dictionaries, but there are exceptions here too. Mass-market bilingual Czech dictionaries, for instance, tend to use the IPA only for sounds not found in Czech.[42]
In the IPA itself, however, only lower-case letters are used. The 1949 edition of the IPA handbook indicated that an asterisk Шаблон:Angbr might be prefixed to indicate that a word was a proper name,[43] but this convention was not included in the 1999 Handbook, which notes the contrary use of the asterisk as a placeholder for a sound or feature that does not have a symbol.[44]
Classical singing
The IPA has widespread use among classical singers during preparation as they are frequently required to sing in a variety of foreign languages. They are also taught by vocal coaches to perfect diction and improve tone quality and tuning.[45] Opera librettos are authoritatively transcribed in IPA, such as Nico Castel's volumes[46] and Timothy Cheek's book Singing in Czech.[47] Opera singers' ability to read IPA was used by the site Visual Thesaurus, which employed several opera singers "to make recordings for the 150,000 words and phrases in VT's lexical database ... for their vocal stamina, attention to the details of enunciation, and most of all, knowledge of IPA".[48]
Letters
Шаблон:See also
The International Phonetic Association organizes the letters of the IPA into three categories: pulmonic consonants, non-pulmonic consonants, and vowels.[49][50]
Pulmonic consonant letters are arranged singly or in pairs of voiceless (tenuis) and voiced sounds, with these then grouped in columns from front (labial) sounds on the left to back (glottal) sounds on the right. In official publications by the IPA, two columns are omitted to save space, with the letters listed among 'other symbols' even though theoretically they belong in the main chart.Шаблон:NoteTag They are arranged in rows from full closure (occlusives: stops and nasals) at top, to brief closure (vibrants: trills and taps), to partial closure (fricatives), and finally minimal closure (approximants) at bottom, again with a row left out to save space. In the table below, a slightly different arrangement is made: All pulmonic consonants are included in the pulmonic-consonant table, and the vibrants and laterals are separated out so that the rows reflect the common lenition pathway of stop → fricative → approximant, as well as the fact that several letters pull double duty as both fricative and approximant; affricates may then be created by joining stops and fricatives from adjacent cells. Shaded cells represent articulations that are judged to be impossible.
Vowel letters are also grouped in pairs—of unrounded and rounded vowel sounds—with these pairs also arranged from front on the left to back on the right, and from maximal closure at top to minimal closure at bottom. No vowel letters are omitted from the chart, though in the past some of the mid central vowels were listed among the 'other symbols'.
A pulmonic consonant is a consonant made by obstructing the glottis (the space between the vocal folds) or oral cavity (the mouth) and either simultaneously or subsequently letting out air from the lungs. Pulmonic consonants make up the majority of consonants in the IPA, as well as in human language. All consonants in English fall into this category.[51]
The pulmonic consonant table, which includes most consonants, is arranged in rows that designate manner of articulation, meaning how the consonant is produced, and columns that designate place of articulation, meaning where in the vocal tract the consonant is produced. The main chart includes only consonants with a single place of articulation.
Шаблон:IPA pulmonic consonants
While IPA provides a single letter for the coronal places of articulation (for all consonants but fricatives), these do not always have to be used exactly. When dealing with a particular language, the letters may be treated as specifically dental, alveolar, or post-alveolar, as appropriate for that language, without diacritics.
Shaded areas indicate articulations judged to be impossible.
The letters Шаблон:IPA are canonically voiced fricatives but may be used for approximants.[53]
In many languages, such as English, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA are not actually glottal, fricatives, or approximants. Rather, they are bare phonation.[54]
It is primarily the shape of the tongue rather than its position that distinguishes the fricatives Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:IPA.
Шаблон:IPA are defined as epiglottal fricatives under the "Other symbols" section in the official IPA chart, but they may be treated as trills at the same place of articulation as Шаблон:IPA because trilling of the aryepiglottic folds typically co-occurs.[55]
Some listed phones are not known to exist as phonemes in any language.
Clicks have traditionally been described as consisting of a forward place of articulation, commonly called the click 'type' or historically the 'influx', and a rear place of articulation, which when combined with the voicing, aspiration, nasalization, affrication, ejection, timing etc. of the click is commonly called the click 'accompaniment' or historically the 'efflux'. The IPA click letters indicate only the click type (forward articulation and release). Therefore, all clicks require two letters for proper notation: Шаблон:Angbr IPA, etc., or with the order reversed if both the forward and rear releases are audible. The letter for the rear articulation is frequently omitted, in which case a Шаблон:Angbr IPA may usually be assumed. However, some researchers dispute the idea that clicks should be analyzed as doubly articulated, as the traditional transcription implies, and analyze the rear occlusion as solely a part of the airstream mechanism.[56] In transcriptions of such approaches, the click letter represents both places of articulation, with the different letters representing the different click types, and diacritics are used for the elements of the accompaniment: Шаблон:Angbr IPA, etc.
Letters for the voiceless implosives Шаблон:Angbr IPA are no longer supported by the IPA, though they remain in Unicode. Instead, the IPA typically uses the voiced equivalent with a voiceless diacritic: Шаблон:Angbr IPA, etc..
The letter for the retroflex implosive, Шаблон:Angbr IPA, is not "explicitly IPA approved",[57] but has the expected form if such a symbol were to be approved.
Affricates and co-articulated stops are represented by two letters joined by a tie bar, either above or below the letters with no difference in meaning.Шаблон:NoteTag Affricates are optionally represented by ligatures (e.g. Шаблон:Angbr IPA), though this is no longer official IPA usage[1] because a great number of ligatures would be required to represent all affricates this way. Alternatively, a superscript notation for a consonant release is sometimes used to transcribe affricates, for example Шаблон:Angbr IPA for Шаблон:IPA, paralleling Шаблон:IPA ~ Шаблон:IPA. The letters for the palatal plosives Шаблон:Angbr IPA and Шаблон:Angbr IPA are often used as a convenience for Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA or similar affricates, even in official IPA publications, so they must be interpreted with care.
Шаблон:IPA affricates
If a diacritic needs to be placed on or under a tie bar, the combining grapheme joiner (U+034F) needs to be used, as in Шаблон:IPA 'chewed' (Margi). Font support is spotty, however.
The IPA defines a vowel as a sound which occurs at a syllable center.[59] Below is a chart depicting the vowels of the IPA. The IPA maps the vowels according to the position of the tongue.
Шаблон:IPA vowels
The vertical axis of the chart is mapped by vowel height. Vowels pronounced with the tongue lowered are at the bottom, and vowels pronounced with the tongue raised are at the top. For example, Шаблон:IPA (the first vowel in father) is at the bottom because the tongue is lowered in this position. Шаблон:IPA (the vowel in "meet") is at the top because the sound is said with the tongue raised to the roof of the mouth.
In a similar fashion, the horizontal axis of the chart is determined by vowel backness. Vowels with the tongue moved towards the front of the mouth (such as Шаблон:IPA, the vowel in "met") are to the left in the chart, while those in which it is moved to the back (such as Шаблон:IPA, the vowel in "but") are placed to the right in the chart.
In places where vowels are paired, the right represents a rounded vowel (in which the lips are rounded) while the left is its unrounded counterpart.
Diphthongs
Diphthongs are typically specified with a non-syllabic diacritic, as in Шаблон:Angbr IPA or Шаблон:Angbr IPA, or with a superscript for the on- or off-glide, as in Шаблон:Angbr IPA or Шаблон:Angbr IPA. Sometimes a tie bar is used: Шаблон:Angbr IPA, especially when it is difficult to tell if the diphthong is characterized by an on-glide or an off-glide or when it is variable.
Diacritics are used for phonetic detail. They are added to IPA letters to indicate a modification or specification of that letter's normal pronunciation.[60]
Subdiacritics (diacritics normally placed below a letter) may be moved above a letter to avoid conflict with a descender, as in voiceless Шаблон:Angbr IPA.[60] The raising and lowering diacritics have optional spacing forms Шаблон:Angbr IPA, Шаблон:Angbr IPA that avoid descenders.
The state of the glottis can be finely transcribed with diacritics. A series of alveolar plosives ranging from open-glottis to closed-glottis phonation is:
Additional diacritics are provided by the Extensions to the IPA for speech pathology.
Suprasegmentals
These symbols describe the features of a language above the level of individual consonants and vowels, that is, at the level of syllable, word or phrase. These include prosody, pitch, length, stress, intensity, tone and gemination of the sounds of a language, as well as the rhythm and intonation of speech.[61] Various ligatures of pitch/tone letters and diacritics are provided for by the Kiel Convention and used in the IPA Handbook despite not being found in the summary of the IPA alphabet found on the one-page chart.
Under capital letters below we will see how a carrier letter may be used to indicate suprasegmental features such as labialization or nasalization. Some authors omit the carrier letter, for e.g. suffixed Шаблон:IPA or prefixed Шаблон:IPA,Шаблон:Notetag or place a spacing variant of a diacritic such as Шаблон:Angbr IPA or Шаблон:Angbr IPA at the beginning or end of a word to indicate that it applies to the entire word.Шаблон:Notetag
Officially, the stress marksШаблон:Angbr IPA appear before the stressed syllable, and thus mark the syllable boundary as well as stress (though the syllable boundary may still be explicitly marked with a period).[62] Occasionally the stress mark is placed immediately before the nucleus of the syllable, after any consonantal onset.[63] In such transcriptions, the stress mark does not mark a syllable boundary. The primary stress mark may be doubledШаблон:Angbr IPA for extra stress (such as prosodic stress). The secondary stress mark is sometimes seen doubled Шаблон:Angbr IPA for extra-weak stress, but this convention has not been adopted by the IPA.[62] Some dictionaries place both stress marks before a syllable, Шаблон:Angbr IPA, to indicate that pronunciations with either primary or secondary stress are heard, though this is not IPA usage.Шаблон:NoteTag
Boundary markers
There are three boundary markers: Шаблон:Angbr IPA for a syllable break, Шаблон:Angbr IPA for a minor prosodic break and Шаблон:Angbr IPA for a major prosodic break. The tags 'minor' and 'major' are intentionally ambiguous. Depending on need, 'minor' may vary from a foot break to a break in list-intonation to a continuing–prosodic unit boundary (equivalent to a comma), and while 'major' is often any intonation break, it may be restricted to a final–prosodic unit boundary (equivalent to a period). The 'major' symbol may also be doubled, Шаблон:Angbr IPA, for a stronger break.Шаблон:NoteTag
Although not part of the IPA, the following additional boundary markers are often used in conjunction with the IPA: Шаблон:Angbr IPA for a mora or mora boundary, Шаблон:Angbr IPA for a syllable or syllable boundary, Шаблон:Angbr IPA for a morpheme boundary, Шаблон:Angbr IPA for a word boundary (may be doubled, Шаблон:Angbr IPA, for e.g. a breath-group boundary),[64]Шаблон:Angbr IPA for a phrase or intermediate boundary and Шаблон:Angbr IPA for a prosodic boundary. For example, C# is a word-final consonant, %V a post-pausa vowel, and σC a syllable-initial consonant.
Pitch and tone
Шаблон:See alsoШаблон:Angbr IPA are defined in the Handbook as "upstep" and "downstep", concepts from tonal languages. However, the upstep symbol can also be used for pitch reset, and the IPA Handbook uses it for prosody in the illustration for Portuguese, a non-tonal language.
Phonetic pitch and phonemic tone may be indicated by either diacritics placed over the nucleus of the syllable (e.g., high-pitch Шаблон:Angbr IPA) or by Chao tone letters placed either before or after the word or syllable. There are three graphic variants of the tone letters: with or without a stave, and facing left or facing right from the stave. The stave was introduced with the 1989 Kiel Convention, as was the option of placing a staved letter after the word or syllable, while retaining the older conventions. There are therefore six ways to transcribe pitch/tone in the IPA: i.e., Шаблон:Angbr IPA, Шаблон:Angbr IPA, Шаблон:Angbr IPA, Шаблон:Angbr IPA, Шаблон:Angbr IPA and Шаблон:Angbr IPA for a high pitch/tone.[62][65][66] Of the tone letters, only left-facing staved letters and a few representative combinations are shown in the summary on the Chart, and in practice it is currently more common for tone letters to occur after the syllable/word than before, as in the Chao tradition. Placement before the word is a carry-over from the pre-Kiel IPA convention, as is still the case for the stress and upstep/downstep marks. The IPA endorses the Chao tradition of using the left-facing tone letters, Шаблон:Angbr IPA, for underlying tone, and the right-facing letters, Шаблон:Angbr IPA, for surface tone, as occurs in tone sandhi, and for the intonation of non-tonal languages.Шаблон:NoteTag In the Portuguese illustration in the 1999 Handbook, tone letters are placed before a word or syllable to indicate prosodic pitch (equivalent to Шаблон:IPA global rise and Шаблон:IPA global fall, but allowing more precision), and in the Cantonese illustration they are placed after a word/syllable to indicate lexical tone. Theoretically therefore prosodic pitch and lexical tone could be simultaneously transcribed in a single text, though this is not a formalized distinction.
Rising and falling pitch, as in contour tones, are indicated by combining the pitch diacritics and letters in the table, such as grave plus acute for rising Шаблон:IPA and acute plus grave for falling Шаблон:IPA. Only six combinations of two diacritics are supported, and only across three levels (high, mid, low), despite the diacritics supporting five levels of pitch in isolation. The four other explicitly approved rising and falling diacritic combinations are high/mid rising Шаблон:IPA, low rising Шаблон:IPA, high falling Шаблон:IPA, and low/mid falling Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:NoteTag
The Chao tone letters, on the other hand, may be combined in any pattern, and are therefore used for more complex contours and finer distinctions than the diacritics allow, such as mid-rising Шаблон:IPA, extra-high falling Шаблон:IPA, etc. There are 20 such possibilities. However, in Chao's original proposal, which was adopted by the IPA in 1989, he stipulated that the half-high and half-low letters Шаблон:Angbr IPA may be combined with each other, but not with the other three tone letters, so as not to create spuriously precise distinctions. With this restriction, there are 8 possibilities.[67]
The old staveless tone letters tend to be more restricted than the staved letters, though not as restricted as the diacritics. Officially, they support as many distinctions as the staved letters,Шаблон:Notetag but typically only three pitch levels are distinguished. Unicode supports default or high-pitch Шаблон:Angbr IPA and low-pitch Шаблон:Angbr IPA. Only a few mid-pitch tones are supported (such as Шаблон:Angbr IPA), and then only accidentally.
Although tone diacritics and tone letters are presented as equivalent on the chart, "this was done only to simplify the layout of the chart. The two sets of symbols are not comparable in this way."[68] Using diacritics, a high tone is Шаблон:Angbr IPA and a low tone is Шаблон:Angbr IPA; in tone letters, these are Шаблон:Angbr IPA and Шаблон:Angbr IPA. One can double the diacritics for extra-high Шаблон:Angbr IPA and extra-low Шаблон:Angbr IPA; there is no parallel to this using tone letters. Instead, tone letters have mid-high Шаблон:Angbr IPA and mid-low Шаблон:Angbr IPA; again, there is no equivalent among the diacritics. Thus in a three-register tone system, Шаблон:Angbr IPA are equivalent to Шаблон:Angbr IPA, while in a four-register system, Шаблон:Angbr IPA may be equivalent to Шаблон:Angbr IPA.[62]
The correspondence breaks down even further once they start combining. For more complex tones, one may combine three or four tone diacritics in any permutation,[62] though in practice only generic peaking (rising-falling) Шаблон:IPA and dipping (falling-rising) Шаблон:IPA combinations are used. Chao tone letters are required for finer detail (Шаблон:IPA, etc.). Although only 10 peaking and dipping tones were proposed in Chao's original, limited set of tone letters, phoneticians often make finer distinctions, and indeed an example is found on the IPA Chart.Шаблон:NoteTag The system allows the transcription of 112 peaking and dipping pitch contours, including tones that are level for part of their length.
Original (restricted) set of Chao tone lettersШаблон:NoteTag
More complex contours are possible. Chao gave an example of Шаблон:IPA (mid-high-low-mid) from English prosody.[67]
Chao tone letters generally appear after each syllable, for a language with syllable tone (Шаблон:Angbr IPA), or after the phonological word, for a language with word tone (Шаблон:Angbr IPA). The IPA gives the option of placing the tone letters before the word or syllable (Шаблон:Angbr IPA, Шаблон:Angbr IPA), but this is rare for lexical tone. (And indeed reversed tone letters may be used to clarify that they apply to the following rather than to the preceding syllable: Шаблон:Angbr IPA, Шаблон:Angbr IPA.) The staveless letters are not directly supported by Unicode, but some fonts allow the stave in Chao tone letters to be suppressed.
Comparative degree
IPA diacritics may be doubled to indicate an extra degree (greater intensity) of the feature indicated.[69] This is a productive process, but apart from extra-high and extra-low tones being marked by doubled high- and low-tone diacritics, Шаблон:Angbr IPA, the major prosodic breakШаблон:Angbr IPA being marked as a doubled minor break Шаблон:Angbr IPA, and a couple other instances, such usage is not enumerated by the IPA.
For example, the stress mark may be doubled to indicate an extra degree of stress, such as prosodic stress in English.[70] An example in French, with a single stress mark for normal prosodic stress at the end of each prosodic unit (marked as a minor prosodic break), and a double stress mark for contrastive/emphatic stress: Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Lang.[71] Similarly, a doubled secondary stress mark Шаблон:Angbr IPA is commonly used for tertiary (extra-light) stress.[72] In a similar vein, the effectively obsolete staveless tone letters were once doubled for an emphatic rising intonation Шаблон:Angbr IPA and an emphatic falling intonation Шаблон:Angbr IPA.[73]
Length is commonly extended by repeating the length mark, as in English shhh!Шаблон:IPA, or for "overlong" segments, such as in Estonian:
(Normally additional degrees of length are handled by the extra-short or half-long diacritic, i.e. Шаблон:Angbr IPA or Шаблон:Angbr IPA, but the first two words in each of the Estonian examples are analyzed as typically short and long, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, requiring a different remedy for the additional words.)
Delimiters are similar: double slashes indicate extra phonemic (morpho-phonemic), double square brackets especially precise transcription, and double parentheses especially unintelligible.
Especially lowered, e.g. Шаблон:IPA (or Шаблон:IPA, if the former symbol does not display properly) for Шаблон:IPA as a weak fricative in some pronunciations of register.[77]
The transcription of strident and harsh voice as extra-creaky Шаблон:IPA may be motivated by the similarities of these phonations.
The extIPA provides combining parentheses for weak intensity, which when combined with a doubled diacritic indicate an intermediate degree. For instance, increasing degrees of nasalization of the vowel Шаблон:IPA might be written Шаблон:Angbr IPA.
Ambiguous letters
A number of IPA letters are not consistently used for their official values. A distinction between voiced fricatives and approximants is only partially implemented by the IPA, for example. Even with the relatively recent addition of the palatal fricative Шаблон:Angbr IPA and the velar approximant Шаблон:Angbr IPA to the alphabet, other letters, though defined as fricatives, are often ambiguous between fricative and approximant. For forward places, Шаблон:Angbr IPA and Шаблон:Angbr IPA can generally be assumed to be fricatives unless they carry a lowering diacritic. Rearward, however, Шаблон:Angbr IPA and Шаблон:Angbr IPA are perhaps more commonly intended to be approximants even without a lowering diacritic. Шаблон:Angbr IPA and Шаблон:Angbr IPA are similarly either fricatives or approximants, depending on the language, or even glottal "transitions", without that often being specified in the transcription.
Another common ambiguity is among the letters for palatal consonants. Шаблон:Angbr IPA and Шаблон:Angbr IPA are not uncommonly used as a typographic convenience for affricates, typically Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, while Шаблон:Angbr IPA and Шаблон:Angbr IPA are commonly used for palatalized alveolar Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA. To some extent this may be an effect of analysis, but it is common to match up single IPA letters to the phonemes of a language, without overly worrying about phonetic precision.
It has been argued that the lower-pharyngeal (epiglottal) fricatives Шаблон:Angbr IPA and Шаблон:Angbr IPA are better characterized as trills, rather than as fricatives that have incidental trilling.[80] This has the advantage of merging the upper-pharyngeal fricatives Шаблон:IPA together with the epiglottal plosive Шаблон:IPA and trills Шаблон:IPA into a single pharyngeal column in the consonant chart. However, in Shilha Berber the epiglottal fricatives are not trilled.[81][82] Although they might be transcribed Шаблон:Angbr IPA to indicate this, the far more common transcription is Шаблон:Angbr IPA, which is therefore ambiguous between languages.
Among vowels, Шаблон:Angbr IPA is officially a front vowel, but is more commonly treated as a central vowel. The difference, to the extent it is even possible, is not phonemic in any language.
For all phonetic notation, it is good practice for an author to specify exactly what they mean by the symbols that they use.
Superscript letters
Шаблон:AnchorШаблон:Further
Superscript IPA letters are used to indicate secondary aspects of articulation. These may be aspects of simultaneous articulation that are considered to be in some sense less dominant than the basic sound, or may be transitional articulations that are interpreted as secondary elements.[83] Examples include secondary articulation; onsets, releases and other transitions; shades of sound; light epenthetic sounds and incompletely articulated sounds. The IPA and ICPLA endorse Unicode encoding of superscript variants of all contemporary segmental letters, including the "implicit" IPA retroflex letters Шаблон:Angbr IPA.[37][84][85]
Superscript letters can be meaningfully modified by combining diacritics, just as baseline letters can. For example, a superscript dental nasal in Шаблон:Angbr IPA, a superscript voiceless velar nasal in Шаблон:Angbr IPA, and labial-velar prenasalization in Шаблон:Angbr IPA. Although the diacritic may seem a bit oversized compared to the superscript letter it modifies, e.g. Шаблон:Angbr IPA, this can be an aid to legibility, just as it is with the composite superscript c-cedilla Шаблон:Angbr IPA and rhotic vowels Шаблон:Angbr IPA. Superscript length marks can be used to indicate the length of aspiration of a consonant, e.g. Шаблон:IPA. Another option is to used parentheses and a doubled diacritic: Шаблон:Angbr IPA.[37]
A number of IPA letters and diacritics have been retired or replaced over the years. This number includes duplicate symbols, symbols that were replaced due to user preference, and unitary symbols that were rendered with diacritics or digraphs to reduce the inventory of the IPA. The rejected symbols are now considered obsolete, though some are still seen in the literature.
The IPA once had several pairs of duplicate symbols from alternative proposals, but eventually settled on one or the other. An example is the vowel letter Шаблон:Angbr IPA, rejected in favor of Шаблон:Angbr IPA. Affricates were once transcribed with ligatures, such as Шаблон:Angbr IPA (and others, some of which not found in Unicode). These have been officially retired but are still used. Letters for specific combinations of primary and secondary articulation have also been mostly retired, with the idea that such features should be indicated with tie bars or diacritics: Шаблон:Angbr IPA for Шаблон:IPA is one. In addition, the rare voiceless implosives, Шаблон:Angbr IPA, were dropped soon after their introduction and are now usually written Шаблон:Angbr IPA. The original set of click letters, Шаблон:Angbr IPA, was retired but is still sometimes seen, as the current pipe letters Шаблон:Angbr IPA can cause problems with legibility, especially when used with brackets ([ ] or / /), the letter Шаблон:Angbr IPA (small L), or the prosodic marks Шаблон:Angbr IPA. (For this reason, some publications which use the current IPA pipe letters disallow IPA brackets.)[86]
Individual non-IPA letters may find their way into publications that otherwise use the standard IPA. This is especially common with:
Digits for tonal phonemes that have conventional numbers in a local tradition, such as the four tones of Standard Chinese. This may be more convenient for comparison between related languages and dialects than a phonetic transcription would be, because tones vary more unpredictably than segmental phonemes do.
Digits for tone levels, which are simpler to typeset, though the lack of standardization can cause confusion (e.g. Шаблон:Angbr IPA is high tone in some languages but low tone in others; Шаблон:Angbr IPA may be high, medium or low tone, depending on the local convention).
Iconic extensions of standard IPA letters that are implicit in the alphabet, such as retroflex [[voiced retroflex implosive|Шаблон:Angbr IPA]] and [[voiceless retroflex lateral fricative|Шаблон:Angbr IPA]]. These are referred to in the Handbook and have been included in Unicode at IPA request.
Even presidents of the IPA have used para-IPA notation, such as resurrecting the old diacritic Шаблон:Angbr IPA for purely labialized sounds (not simultaneously velarized), the lateral fricative letter Шаблон:Angbr IPA, and either the old dot diacritic Шаблон:Angbr IPA or the novel letters Шаблон:Angbr IPA for the not-quite-retroflex fricatives of Polish sz, ż and of Russian ш ж.
The Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for Disordered Speech, commonly abbreviated "extIPA" and sometimes called "Extended IPA", are symbols whose original purpose was to accurately transcribe disordered speech. At the Kiel Convention in 1989, a group of linguists drew up the initial extensions,[87] which were based on the previous work of the PRDS (Phonetic Representation of Disordered Speech) Group in the early 1980s.[88] The extensions were first published in 1990, then modified, and published again in 1994 in the Journal of the International Phonetic Association, when they were officially adopted by the ICPLA.[89] While the original purpose was to transcribe disordered speech, linguists have used the extensions to designate a number of sounds within standard communication, such as hushing, gnashing teeth, and smacking lips,[2] as well as regular lexical sounds such as lateral fricatives that do not have standard IPA symbols.
In addition to the Extensions to the IPA for disordered speech, there are the conventions of the Voice Quality Symbols, which include a number of symbols for additional airstream mechanisms and secondary articulations in what they call "voice quality".
Associated notation
Capital letters and various characters on the number row of the keyboard are commonly used to extend the alphabet in various ways.
Associated symbols
There are various punctuation-like conventions for linguistic transcription that are commonly used together with IPA. Some of the more common are:
(a) A reconstructed form, deeper (more ancient) than a single Шаблон:Angbr, used when reconstructing even further back from already-starred forms.
(b) An ungrammatical form. A less common convention than Шаблон:Angbr (b), this is sometimes used when reconstructed and ungrammatical forms occur in the same text.[90]
An ungrammatical form. A less common convention than Шаблон:Angbr (b), this is sometimes used when reconstructed and ungrammatical forms occur in the same text.[91]
The location of a segment – e.g. Шаблон:Angbr for an intervocalic position, or Шаблон:Angbr for word-final position.
Capital letters
Full capital letters are not used as IPA symbols, except as typewriter substitutes (e.g. N for Шаблон:Angbr IPA, S for Шаблон:Angbr IPA, O for Шаблон:Angbr IPA – see SAMPA). They are, however, often used in conjunction with the IPA in two cases:
for (archi)phonemes and for natural classes of sounds (that is, as wildcards). The extIPA chart, for example, uses capital letters as wildcards in its illustrations.
Wildcards are commonly used in phonology to summarize syllable or word shapes, or to show the evolution of classes of sounds. For example, the possible syllable shapes of Mandarin can be abstracted as ranging from Шаблон:IPA (an atonic vowel) to Шаблон:IPA (a consonant-glide-vowel-nasal syllable with tone), and word-final devoicing may be schematized as Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA/_#. In speech pathology, capital letters represent indeterminate sounds, and may be superscripted to indicate they are weakly articulated: e.g. Шаблон:IPA is a weak indeterminate alveolar, Шаблон:IPA a weak indeterminate velar.[93]
Typical examples of archiphonemic use of capital letters are Шаблон:Angbr IPA for the Turkish harmonic vowel set Шаблон:IPA};Шаблон:NoteTagШаблон:Angbr IPA for the conflated flapped middle consonant of American English writer and rider; Шаблон:Angbr IPA for the homorganic syllable-coda nasal of languages such as Spanish and Japanese (essentially equivalent to the wild-card usage of the letter); and Шаблон:Angbr IPA in cases where a phonemic distinction between trill Шаблон:IPA and flap Шаблон:IPA is conflated, as in Spanish enrejarШаблон:IPA (the n is homorganic and the first r is a trill, but the second r is variable).[94] Similar usage is found for phonemic analysis, where a language does not distinguish sounds that have separate letters in the IPA. For instance, Castillian Spanish has been analyzed as having phonemes Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, which surface as Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA in voiceless environments and as Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA in voiced environments (e.g. hazteШаблон:IPA, → Шаблон:IPA, vs hazmeШаблон:IPA, → Шаблон:IPA; or las manosШаблон:IPA, → Шаблон:IPA).[95]
This summary is to some extent valid internationally, but linguistic material written in other languages may have different associations with capital letters used as wildcards. For example, in German Шаблон:Angbr IPA and Шаблон:Angbr IPA are used for Konsonant (consonant) and Vokal (vowel); in French, tone may be transcribed with Шаблон:Angbr IPA and Шаблон:Angbr IPA for haut (high) and bas (low).[97]
Segments without letters
The blank cells on the summary IPA chart can be filled without much difficulty if the need arises.
The epiglottal trill is arguably covered by the generally trilled epiglottal "fricatives" Шаблон:Angbr IPA. Ad hoc letters for near-close central vowels, Шаблон:Angbr IPA, are used in some descriptions of English, though those are specifically reduced vowels (forming a set with the IPA reduced vowels Шаблон:Angbr IPA), and the simple points in vowel space are easily transcribed with diacritics: Шаблон:Angbr IPA or Шаблон:Angbr IPA. Diacritics are able to fill in most of the remainder of the charts.[98] If a sound cannot be transcribed, an asterisk Шаблон:Angbr IPA may be used, either as a letter or as a diacritic (as in Шаблон:Angbr IPA sometimes seen for the Korean "fortis" velar).
Consonants
Representations of consonant sounds outside of the core set are created by adding diacritics to letters with similar sound values. The Spanish bilabial and dental approximants are commonly written as lowered fricatives, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA respectively.Шаблон:NoteTag Similarly, voiced lateral fricatives can be written as raised lateral approximants, Шаблон:IPA, though the extIPA also provides Шаблон:Angbr IPA for the first of these. A few languages such as Banda have a bilabial flap as the preferred allophone of what is elsewhere a labiodental flap. It has been suggested that this be written with the labiodental flap letter and the advanced diacritic, Шаблон:IPA.[99]
Similarly, a labiodental trill would be written Шаблон:IPA (bilabial trill and the dental sign), and the labiodental plosives are now universally Шаблон:Angbr IPA rather than the ad hoc letters Шаблон:Angbr IPA once found in Bantuist literature. Other taps can be written as extra-short plosives or laterals, e.g. Шаблон:IPA, though in some cases the diacritic would need to be written below the letter. A retroflex trill can be written as a retracted Шаблон:IPA, just as non-subapical retroflex fricatives sometimes are. The remaining pulmonic consonants – the uvular laterals (Шаблон:IPA) and the palatal trill – while not strictly impossible, are very difficult to pronounce and are unlikely to occur even as allophones in the world's languages.
Vowels
The vowels are similarly manageable by using diacritics for raising, lowering, fronting, backing, centering, and mid-centering.[100] For example, the unrounded equivalent of Шаблон:IPA can be transcribed as mid-centered Шаблон:IPA, and the rounded equivalent of Шаблон:IPA as raised Шаблон:IPA or lowered Шаблон:IPA (though for those who conceive of vowel space as a triangle, simple Шаблон:IPA already is the rounded equivalent of Шаблон:IPA). True mid vowels are lowered Шаблон:IPA or raised Шаблон:IPA, while centered Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA (or, less commonly, Шаблон:IPA) are near-close and open central vowels, respectively.
Шаблон:Main
An IPA symbol is often distinguished from the sound it is intended to represent, since there is not necessarily a one-to-one correspondence between letter and sound in broad transcription, making articulatory descriptions such as "mid front rounded vowel" or "voiced velar stop" unreliable. While the Handbook of the International Phonetic Association states that no official names exist for its symbols, it admits the presence of one or two common names for each.[103] The symbols also have nonce names in the Unicode standard. In many cases, the names in Unicode and the IPA Handbook differ. For example, the Handbook calls Шаблон:Angbr IPA "epsilon", while Unicode calls it "small letter open e".
The traditional names of the Latin and Greek letters are usually used for unmodified letters.Шаблон:NoteTag Letters which are not directly derived from these alphabets, such as Шаблон:Angbr IPA, may have a variety of names, sometimes based on the appearance of the symbol or on the sound that it represents. In Unicode, some of the letters of Greek origin have Latin forms for use in IPA; the others use the characters from the Greek block.
For diacritics, there are two methods of naming. For traditional diacritics, the IPA notes the name in a well known language; for example, Шаблон:Angbr IPA is "e-acute", based on the name of the diacritic in English and French. Non-traditional diacritics are often named after objects they resemble, so Шаблон:Angbr IPA is called "d-bridge".
Шаблон:Main
After the Kiel Convention in 1989, most IPA symbols were assigned an identifying number to prevent confusion between similar characters during the printing of manuscripts. The codes were never much used and have been superseded by Unicode.
Typefaces
Файл:IPA font sample (SIL, Brill, Noto, Calibri).pngThe sequence Шаблон:IPA in the fonts Gentium Book Plus, Andika, Brill, Noto Serif and Calibri. All of these fonts align diacritics well. Asterisks are characters not supported by that font. In Noto, the red tone letters do not link properly. This is a test sequence: Noto and Calibri support most IPA adequately.
Many typefaces have support for IPA characters, but good diacritic rendering remains rare.[104]Web browsers generally do not need any configuration to display IPA characters, provided that a typeface capable of doing so is available to the operating system.
Free fonts
Typefaces that provide full IPA and nearly full extIPA support, including properly rendering the diacritics, include Gentium Plus, Charis SIL, Doulos SIL, and Andika.
In addition to the level of support found in commercial and system fonts, these fonts support the full range of old-style (pre-Kiel) staveless tone letters, through a character variant option that suppresses the stave of the Chao tone letters. They also have an option to maintain the Шаблон:Angbr IPA ~ Шаблон:Angbr IPA vowel distinction when set in italic. The only notable gaps are with the extIPA: the combining parentheses, which enclose diacritics, need to be set individually, as the character for paired parentheses is not supported; nor is the enclosing circle used to mark unidentified sounds supported, as it is essentially a copy-edit mark and Unicode handling has not been worked out.
The basic Latin Noto fonts also have decent IPA support, including diacritic placement, only failing with the more obscure characters.
Proprietary system fonts
The Microsoft Arial and Times New Roman fonts include IPA characters, but they are neither complete (especially Arial) nor render diacritics properly. The Apple system fonts Geneva, Lucida Grande and Hiragino (certain weights) have only basic IPA support. The Calibri font, which is the default font of Microsoft Office, has nearly complete IPA support with good diacritic rendering, though not as good as what is available with free fonts (see image at right).
Notable commercial fonts
Brill has complete IPA and extIPA coverage of characters added to Unicode by 2020, with good diacritic and tone-letter support. It is a commercial font but is freely available for non-commercial use.[105]
ASCII and keyboard transliterations
Шаблон:Further
Several systems have been developed that map the IPA symbols to ASCII characters. Notable systems include SAMPA and X-SAMPA. The usage of mapping systems in on-line text has to some extent been adopted in the context input methods, allowing convenient keying of IPA characters that would be otherwise unavailable on standard keyboard layouts.
IETF language tags
IETF language tags have registered Шаблон:Mono as a variant subtag identifying text as written in IPA.[106]
Thus, an IPA transcription of English could be tagged as Шаблон:Mono.
For the use of IPA without attribution to a concrete language, Шаблон:Mono is available.
Computer input using on-screen keyboard
Online IPA keyboard utilities are available, though none of them cover the complete range of IPA symbols and diacritics. Examples are the IPA 2018 i-charts hosted by the IPA,[107]IPA character picker 27 at GitHub,[108]Type IPA phonetic symbols at TypeIt.org,[109] and an IPA Chart keyboard also at GitHub.[110] In April 2019, Google's Gboard for Android added an IPA keyboard to its platform.[111][112] For iOS there are multiple free keyboard layouts available, such as the IPA Phonetic Keyboard.[113]
↑"Originally, the aim was to make available a set of phonetic symbols which would be given different articulatory values, if necessary, in different languages." Шаблон:Harv
↑"From its earliest days [...] the International Phonetic Association has aimed to provide 'a separate sign for each distinctive sound; that is, for each sound which, being used instead of another, in the same language, can change the meaning of a word'." Шаблон:Harv
↑"The non-roman letters of the International Phonetic Alphabet have been designed as far as possible to harmonize well with the roman letters. The Association does not recognize makeshift letters; It recognizes only letters which have been carefully cut so as to be in harmony with the other letters." Шаблон:Harv
↑Шаблон:Harvnb: "The new letters should be suggestive of the sounds they represent, by their resemblance to the old ones."
↑"A symbol such as Шаблон:IPA, shown on the chart in the position for a voiced bilabial fricative, can also be used to represent a voiced bilabial approximant if needed." Шаблон:Harv
↑"At the 1989 Kiel Convention of the IPA, a sub-group was established to draw up recommendations for the transcription of disordered speech." Шаблон:Harv