Английская Википедия:Ippen Shōnin Eden
Шаблон:EngvarB Шаблон:Infobox artwork
The Шаблон:Nihongo is a group of Шаблон:Transl or Шаблон:Transl (painted narrative handscrolls) from the Kamakura period of Japanese history (1185–1333). A set of illuminated manuscripts, they describe the life of Шаблон:Transl (1234–1289), a Buddhist monk who founded the Шаблон:Nihongo branch of Pure Land Buddhism.
Amongst the various Шаблон:Transl bearing this title, the original version from 1299, named Шаблон:Nihongo, is the best known and most famous.Шаблон:Sfn A second version, made in a more accessible style in the 14th century, and named Шаблон:Nihongo, also recounts the biography of the monk.Шаблон:Sfn As many copies of these two original Шаблон:Transl were subsequently produced, the whole group is often referred to under the term Шаблон:Transl.
The Шаблон:Transl, the original version created by Шаблон:Nihongo and painted by Шаблон:Transl, consists of twelve rolls of silk, a very expensive material, with alternating calligraphy texts and paintings. The pictorial style and the composition of the illustrations are unheard of in the art of Шаблон:Transl, drawing inspiration both from Japanese Шаблон:Transl (the traditional style of the Imperial Court) and from the Chinese landscape in the wash technique of the Song dynasty and in line with the realistic tendencies in the Japanese art of the Kamakura period.
The Шаблон:Transl, completed between 1303 and 1307 under the leadership of Шаблон:Transl in ten rolls of paper, covers the biographies of Шаблон:Transl and especially of his successor Шаблон:Transl. Less refined, it has a proselytising vocation and aims to establish Шаблон:Transl's legitimacy as co-founder of the school. This version, now destroyed, has reached us through its various copies.
Background
Шаблон:Transl arts
Originating in Japan in the sixth or seventh century through trade with the Chinese Empire, Шаблон:Transl art spread widely among the aristocracy in the Heian period. An Шаблон:Transl consists of one or more long rolls of paper narrating a story through Шаблон:Transl texts and paintings. The reader discovers the story by progressively unrolling the scroll with one hand while rewinding it with the other hand, from right to left (according to the then horizontal writing direction of Japanese script), so that only a portion of text or image of about Шаблон:Cvt is visible. The narrative assumes a series of scenes, the rhythm, composition and transitions of which are entirely the artist's sensitivity and technique. The themes of the stories were very varied: illustrations of novels, historical chronicles, religious texts, biographies of famous people, humorous or fantastic anecdotes, etc.[1]
The Kamakura period (12th–14th century), which followed a period of unrest and civil war, was marked by the arrival in power of the warrior class (the samurai). This politically and socially unstable period provided fertile ground for Buddhism to proselytize, whether through the depiction of the sutras, or by illustrated accounts of the lives of illustrious monks. Under the impetus of the new warrior class in power and the new Buddhist sects, artistic production was very sustained and the themes and techniques were even more varied than before,Шаблон:Sfn signalling the "golden age" of Шаблон:Transl (the 12th and 13th centuries).Шаблон:Sfn
The Шаблон:Transl fits into this context. Biographies of monks (Шаблон:Transl or Шаблон:Transl) were very popular at the time of the Kamakura, that theme being favoured by the emergence of many Pure Land Buddhist schools.Шаблон:Sfn
Шаблон:Transl and the Шаблон:Transl school
The various versions and copies of the Шаблон:Transl relate the life of Шаблон:Transl (1234–1289), a Buddhist monk who, in 1274, founded the Шаблон:Transl school, one of the branches of Pure Land Buddhism that supplanted the ancient esoteric and elitist Japanese schools of the Kamakura period. Following the Pure Land principles, Шаблон:Transl taught that the Amida Buddha (Amitābha) welcomes into his paradise anyone who has faith in him; he initiates the faithful to the daily recitation of the name of the Amida Buddha (Шаблон:Transl) and the rituals of ecstatic dances and songs (Шаблон:Transl), a simple religious practice accessible to all, even the poor and the uneducated.[2] According to the accounts of the time, this doctrine would have been revealed to Шаблон:Transl by a manifestation of the Buddha; Шаблон:Transl then devoted his life to travelling throughout Japan, especially rural areas, to carry the message.[3]
Born in 1239, Шаблон:Transl was the second son of a family of the Шаблон:Transl samurai clan in Iyo Province.[4] He entered religious orders at the age of fifteen and studied the teachings of Pure Land Buddhism (known in Japan as Шаблон:Transl) in Dazaifu with Шаблон:Nihongo, himself a disciple of Шаблон:Nihongo, before devoting himself to hermit meditation in the mountains.[5] In the summer of 1274, Шаблон:Transl retired to the Kumano shrine, a sacred place of the Shinto religion.[6] According to legend, he there received a revelation (Шаблон:Transl) that invited him to spread throughout the country the faith of Amida: ie any man can access the Pure Land (Шаблон:Transl) of the Buddha Amida through the Шаблон:Transl, that is to say the recitation invoking his name.[5][7]
From then onwards, Шаблон:Transl travelled to temples and shrines in Japan to spread this doctrine. He also took the name of Шаблон:Transl and lead the life of an itinerant pilgrim, distributing tablets with the Шаблон:Transl[7] inscribed on them. As a sign of a time when religious education was becoming more popular and accessible, Шаблон:Transl preached in all places of everyday life: inns, markets, villages ... He accompanied his recitations of the name of Amida with ecstatic dances (Шаблон:Transl) which seduced the populace with their "frenzied exaltation".[5] In 1289, he fell ill and died in Шаблон:Transl (now Kobe) at Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Transl).[4] He is said to have asked that no funeral rites be held for him.[8]
It seems that Шаблон:Transl converted a large segment of the population to the Шаблон:Transl doctrine, perhaps more than 250,000 people.[5] From the middle of the 14th century to the early 16th century, Шаблон:Transl was probably one of the most popular Amidist schools in Japan. However, in the 16th century, it greatly lost influence, and nowadays it is no longer a minority religious movement.Шаблон:Sfn
The two versions of the Шаблон:Transl
The Шаблон:Transl narrating the life of Шаблон:Transl and collectively known as Шаблон:Transl are divided into two lineages: those from the version known as Шаблон:Nihongo (disciple and younger brother or nephew of Ippen), made in 1299, and those from the version referred to as Шаблон:Nihongo (pupil of Шаблон:Nihongo, himself a disciple of Шаблон:Transl), completed between 1304 and 1307, and now lost. The oldest and most famous of the Шаблон:Transl versions is known as Шаблон:Nihongo and of the Шаблон:Transl versions is called Шаблон:Nihongo or Шаблон:Nihongo.[9]
Various direct or indirect copies of the Шаблон:Transl and Шаблон:Transl versions exist, such as the Шаблон:Transl copy (1323), rather burlesque in the vein of the Шаблон:Transl movement, the Шаблон:Transl copy (second half of the 14th or early 15th century), close to the original of 1299, and the Шаблон:Transl copy (in Шаблон:Transl, made in 1594 by Шаблон:Transl), aiming at the extraordinary.[10] The exhaustive list of temples or institutions with a copy today (excluding private collections and fragments) is:Шаблон:Sfn
- in line with the Шаблон:Transl version at Шаблон:Transl (Kyoto): the Шаблон:Transl copy (Kyoto, the so-called Шаблон:Transl, now stored in the Шаблон:Transl library and in the Шаблон:Transl family collection), the Шаблон:Transl copy (Niigata) and the Fujita Art Museum copy (Osaka);
- in line with the Шаблон:Transl version at Шаблон:Transl (Fujisawa; the original version has been lost, but the temple itself has a copy): the Konren-ji copies (Kyoto, two copies), and the copies known as Шаблон:Transl (Kobe), Шаблон:Transl (Yamagata), Шаблон:Transl (Niigata), Шаблон:Transl (Niigata), Шаблон:Transl (Kyoto), Шаблон:Transl (Onomichi) and Шаблон:Transl (Nagano); according to H. Sasaki,[11] there are twenty complete or incomplete copies of this version, including the ones in private collections.
Biographies probably occasionally mix Шаблон:Transl's life with those of other monks such as Шаблон:Transl, especially in relation to his apprenticeship at Tendai.[10] Other famous monks also had their biographies depicted in Шаблон:Transl, including Шаблон:Transl and Шаблон:Transl.[12]
Шаблон:Transl version (1299): Шаблон:Transl
Description
The very first version, known as that of Шаблон:Transl (disciple and close to Шаблон:Transl during his lifetime), was completed in 1299, ten years after the monk's death, and remains the best known and most studied by historians and specialists in art history: with it, the art of the Шаблон:Transl reaches "one of its peaks".Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The work consists of twelve scrolls Шаблон:Cvt high and Шаблон:Cvt long, which have the distinction of being in silk (probably to mark the importance of the monk) and not in paper as is most common.Шаблон:Sfn
Its creation in 1299 is attributed to Шаблон:Transl, author of the text, while the paintings were carried out under the direction of the painter Шаблон:Nihongo, probably a disciple of Шаблон:Transl during his lifetime, as evidenced by the faithful transcription of his life, and who could have been a high priest of Шаблон:Transl or a professional painter linked to the Imperial Court.[13]Шаблон:Sfn The exact role of Шаблон:Transl remains open to interpretation: the size of the Шаблон:Transl and variations in styles suggest that several assistants probably collaborated under the direction of the master. Stylistic studies enable the linking of the paintings with the workshops of the Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Transl) and Шаблон:Transl temples, due to the proximity of mandalas conceived by the workshops.[14] Four main styles have been identified for the calligraphy, the work of several aristocrats of the Imperial Court led by Шаблон:Transl, and carried out separately on silk coupons of various colours.[13]Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
The sponsor is not known for sure or named on the colophon. The quality and richness of the work, carried out on silk, a luxury material and support of only one other Шаблон:Transl known today (the Шаблон:Transl), strongly suggest an order from a wealthy patron of the court, probably a Шаблон:Transl convert, to make an offering to Шаблон:Transl. The most commonly advanced hypothesis as to the identity of this patron is that of the Grand Chancellor Шаблон:Transl.Шаблон:Sfn
Recognised as a National Treasure of Japan, the Шаблон:Transl belongs to the Шаблон:Transl temple in Kyoto (founded by Шаблон:Transl with the support of Шаблон:Transl),Шаблон:Sfn[15] but is now kept in the National Museums of Kyoto and Nara. Part of Scroll VII, stored at the Tokyo National Museum since 1951, and a fragment of Scroll VI belonging to a private collector, were detached at the beginning of the Meiji era.Шаблон:Sfn Their state of preservation is generally good, despite a few lost or erased fragments.Шаблон:Sfn
Themes
The texts of the Шаблон:Transl version narrate the key episodes of Шаблон:Transl's life in three broad periods: his initiation and his studies of Buddhism until the revelation of 1274 in Kumano, the creation of the congregation that would become the Шаблон:Transl school, and the end of his life as he attracted large crowds of faithful to his sermons.Шаблон:Sfn Throughout the biography Шаблон:Transl's sermons, prayers and many Шаблон:Transl poems are quoted. Other texts on the foundation of temples and shrines (Шаблон:Transl) visited by the monk are also included. Unlike later versions or other biographies of patriarchs, there is no intention in the paintings of this work to give a mystical or divine dimension to Шаблон:Transl, who is often relegated to the background in favor of landscape illustrations.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The calligraphies are more proselytising and relate the various miracles attributed to Шаблон:Transl during his life, so that the text rarely corresponds to the images.Шаблон:Sfn The creator however avoids any excess and in this biography expresses affection and respect towards Шаблон:Transl.Шаблон:Sfn[15]
The Шаблон:Transl version also appears very refined, full of restraint and intended for an elite, reviving the literary and pictorial tradition of the Heian court.[10]Шаблон:Sfn The paintings and texts give a lyrical atmosphere to the work, via the themes of poetry, travel and pilgrimage.Шаблон:Sfn The landscapes are very numerous, faithfully transcribing easily recognizable famous Japanese sights, such as the emergence of Mount Fuji above the mist, the Itsukushima Shrine or the Nachi Falls,Шаблон:Sfn as well as numerous temples and places of pilgrimage such as Mount Kōya or Kumano shrine, the visiting of which had great importance in Шаблон:Transl's life (and therefore loomed large).Шаблон:Sfn The work is similar in this sense to Шаблон:Transl paintings (paintings of famous views) and travelogues, traditional themes associated with the Imperial Court and poetry.[3]
The importance given to landscapes and genre scenes remains rare in illustrated biographies of monks: here, the painter alternates stylised landscapes inspired by traditional Heian poetry and realistic representations of places and people, an original approach in the Шаблон:Transl movement.Шаблон:Sfn By comparison, other illustrated biographies of monks (such as the Шаблон:Transl) emphasise the characters and the dynamism of the narrative, or fall into stereotyping and repetition.[16] Шаблон:Clear left
Style and composition
The Шаблон:Transl, characterized by its realism and colours, belongs to the Шаблон:Transl style of the Kamakura period.Шаблон:Sfn However, unlike most Шаблон:Transl of the day, the early influences of the wash technique of the Song dynasty in China are also on display. The work is based on the alternation between calligraphy and painted sequences, over 48 sections in total (in reference to the 48 wishes of Amida). Transitions between paintings are most often marked by expanses of mist or water, buildings or the change of seasons. The composition presents the same dualism between techniques typical of Шаблон:Transl and incorporation of Chinese Song and Yuan elements.
Beginning with Шаблон:Transl, the scrolls exploit the classical composition techniques of Шаблон:Transl: the whole is based on long parallel vanishing lines that accompany the eye movement and suggest depth, as well as distant elevated viewpoints (so-called "bird's-eye" perspective) and the intensive use of mists (suyari).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The classic Шаблон:Transl technique, which consists of representing the same character several times in a scene to suggest the flow of time and vary the rhythm with great economy of means, is also used on several paintings, for example the scene of the warriors (Scroll IV, Section 3), who, in the centre, first threaten Шаблон:Transl, but then, at top left, are converted by the monk. Шаблон:Transl having dedicated his life to roaming, the travel scenes dominate the work, but despite the importance of the landscapes, the subjective and non-realistic Japanese perspective remains tangible, the main elements of each section being enlarged in relation to the proportions of the sets.Шаблон:Sfn In particular, Шаблон:Transl and his group always appear unusually tall compared with other characters and buildings, as they are central to the story (the religious Шаблон:Transl had mainly a didactic interest). The point of view adopted varies between scenes in the same section in order to energise the story, which can sometimes be unusually distant, so that the details and the crowd become minuscule.Шаблон:Sfn
Landscape scenes, often performed in the styles of Chinese Tang ("blue and green"), Song and Yuan painting, dominate the composition in the Chinese lyrical and spiritual tradition (the art of shan shui).[5][10] In particular, the first influences of the Song wash technique in Japan show through, the contours and inking being very close to the lively and rough line.[13] Several details reveal that the artists were inspired by the style of the Southern Song: the framing of the compositions, the depth of the landscapes rendered by a succession of images, or the use of the side of the brush rather than the tip for the contours of the mountains. The influence of Chinese landscapes explains the marked realism of the paintings, especially in perspective, a realism that characterises the art of the Kamakura period.[16]Шаблон:Sfn Thus, in spite of the unrealistic sizes of the characters and improbable points of view in height, the landscapes are most often deep and rigorously proportioned, reinforced by pictorial techniques such as painting the trees in a detailed way in the foreground and blurred in the background, or even flocks of birds that gradually disappear towards the horizon. The colour itself finally makes it possible to reinforce the hollows and reliefs.Шаблон:Sfn
Realism, much appreciated by the Kamakura Шаблон:Transl, was thus born from the influences of the Chinese landscape, but also reinforced by the dynamic and very detailed representation of everyday life.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The Шаблон:Transl of the 13th century attached particular importance to the representation of crowds here, with a penchant for the common.Шаблон:Sfn The drawings of the buildings still in existence today are for the most part so detailed that sketches must have been made on the spot during Шаблон:Transl's travels, probably by Шаблон:Transl himself.[17] The contrast between the precision of architectural details and unrealistic parallel perspective is felt in all the buildings.[16] H. Okudaira also writes that "there is often a strong association between human emotions and the natural world" in this type of Шаблон:Transl.Шаблон:Sfn There is in fact a correspondence between certain landscapes and feelings conveyed by the story, for example the cherry trees of Шаблон:Transl painted just after flowering when Шаблон:Transl leaves his home, to evoke the separation.Шаблон:Sfn
Шаблон:Transl version (1304/1307): Шаблон:Transl
The Шаблон:Transl based on the Шаблон:Transl biography, known as Шаблон:Transl or Шаблон:Transl, is later than Shokai, from the early 14th century, between 1303 and 1307; only copies remain.Шаблон:Sfn[18] These Шаблон:Transl consist of ten scrolls, but the last six are dedicated to Шаблон:Transl, disciple and successor of Шаблон:Transl and probably master of Шаблон:Transl; the text thus takes the point of view of Шаблон:Transl, rather than that of Шаблон:Transl.Шаблон:Sfn The Шаблон:Transl version aims to consolidate Шаблон:Transl's position as Шаблон:Transl's rightful successor, and presents an idealized and exaggerated view of the school.Шаблон:Sfn Unlike the Шаблон:Transl version, it clearly had a goal of proselytising, with the aim of converting and teaching poorly educated people. As a result, its composition is simpler and more varied, centred on the anecdotal, ultimately to convey everyday feelings such as humour or emotion, as well as the miraculous.[10] Presumably, the artist was seeking to transmit the Amidist teaching through images, which required stylistic and narrative changes - the characters are, for example, represented taller than in real life to be better identifiable during sermons or Шаблон:Transl (public sessions of explanation of religious paintings).[10] This version, a rare document from the early days of the school, and intended for the general public, has been more copied than the Шаблон:Transl version.Шаблон:Sfn
In relation to several of their scenes, the various copies of the Шаблон:Transl version diverge in the importance given to certain characters or certain details, but the plan remains very similar. The first scroll deals with Шаблон:Transl's revelation to Шаблон:Transl and his early conversations about faith in Amida; the second depicts the first Шаблон:Transl he danced, and his sermons to the people during his travels until his expulsion from Шаблон:Transl; the third continues with Шаблон:Transl's voyages accompanied by his numerous disciples; the fourth concerns the end of life and the death of the patriarch; the fifth shows Шаблон:Transl's first sermon to a small local lord and the new hope it arouses among the faithful of the school; scrolls six to nine represent Шаблон:Transl's pilgrimages, sermons and Шаблон:Transl dances, as well as the many miracles (in particular the apparitions of gods and bodhisattvas) punctuating their course; and the tenth scroll features the New Year's ceremony held by Шаблон:Transl in 1303, during which he identifies with Bodhisattva Kannon (Avalokiteśvara, related to Amida) and introduces himself as the co-founder of the Шаблон:Transl school with Шаблон:Transl.Шаблон:Sfn[19]
Historiographical value
In the historiography of Japanese religions, the original version of the Шаблон:Transl (1299) is of inestimable value, as it is the earliest and most reliable of the biographies written about Шаблон:Transl and the founding of the Шаблон:Transl school, especially since its author, Шаблон:Transl, was a close relative and disciple of the monk.Шаблон:Sfn[20] Testifying to a new Buddhist art under the Kamakura period, the work provides information on the architecture of many temples, and the religious practices of the time, in particular pilgrimages and Шаблон:Transl, are well illustrated.Шаблон:Sfn[21][22] The Шаблон:Transl, which reflects more the thought of Шаблон:Transl, the second patriarch of the school, than that of Шаблон:Transl, is therefore rather centred on the early days of the history of Шаблон:Transl.Шаблон:Sfn Beyond Buddhism, Japanese syncretism sometimes shines through, especially when Шаблон:Transl honours Shinto shrines.[23]
An everyday art, Шаблон:Transl's original version of the Шаблон:Transl also provides a detailed testimony to the daily life of medieval Japan, as well as to the landscapes of the time (notably offering one of the first pictorial views of Mount Fuji).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Today, the work presents such invaluable insights that it is widely studied, as much by historians as by art historians.
Historians' studies focus on housing, clothing, food, travel, economic activities, rituals and social and cultural practices.Шаблон:Sfn[24]Шаблон:Sfn As Шаблон:Transl devoted his life to travelling, the urban as well as the rural aspect stands out. The swarming crowds in town are reminiscent of the art of Шаблон:Transl in the Edo period;Шаблон:Sfn one can find there, for example, one of the first representations of the shopping district of Osaka.[25] The artist represents both the poor and the rich, focusing on beggars and the sick who sometimes litter the place, Шаблон:Transl having preached to everyone.[26] K. Satō sees in this the desire to "show us who were the people to whom Ippen really wanted to address" in medieval society: the downgraded, beggars and outcasts.[20]
The city and country paintings, teeming with busy people depicting the daily life of the Japanese people, foreshadow later Japanese genre painting, the best-known movement of which is Шаблон:Transl.Шаблон:Sfn
See also
References
Notes
Bibliography
Books and Theses
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite thesis
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite thesis
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite thesis
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
Journal articles and conference proceedings
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite conference
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite journal
External links
Шаблон:Commons category-inline
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 3,0 3,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 4,0 4,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 5,0 5,1 5,2 5,3 5,4 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 7,0 7,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ 10,0 10,1 10,2 10,3 10,4 10,5 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 13,0 13,1 13,2 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite thesis
- ↑ 15,0 15,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 16,0 16,1 16,2 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ 20,0 20,1 Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
