Английская Википедия:Irish syntax

Материал из Онлайн справочника
Перейти к навигацииПерейти к поиску

Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Unreferenced Irish syntax is rather different from that of most Indo-European languages, especially because of its VSO word order.

Normal word order

The normal word order in an Irish sentence is:

  1. Preverbal particle
  2. Verb
  3. Subject
  4. Direct object or predicate adjective
  5. Indirect object
  6. Location descriptor
  7. Manner descriptor
  8. Time descriptor

Only the verb and subject are obligatory; all other parts are optional (unless the primary or finite verb is transitive, in which case a direct object is required). In synthetic verb forms, the verb and subject are united in a single word, so that even one-word sentences are possible, e.g. Шаблон:Lang "I understand."

An example sentence: Шаблон:Interlinear

Questions and answers

Irish has no words for "yes" and "no". The answer to a question contains a repetition (the same as in Latin) of the verb, either with or without a negative particle. For analytic forms, only the verb is given and the subject is not repeated. If a verb has different dependent and independent forms, the dependent form follows the interrogative or negative particle. The independent form is used where there is no particle. Шаблон:Interlinear Шаблон:Interlinear Шаблон:Interlinear

<section begin="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/>

CNJV:conjunctive DSJV:disjunctive

<section end="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/>

Шаблон:Interlinear Шаблон:Interlinear

Шаблон:Interlinear Шаблон:Interlinear Шаблон:Interlinear

Commands

In a command the imperative mood is used, and no subject is given. Шаблон:Interlinear

To express a negative command, the particle Шаблон:Lang is used. This particle, which can be roughly translated "don't", causes neither eclipsis nor lenition, and attaches h to a following vowel. Шаблон:Interlinear

Шаблон:Interlinear

Шаблон:Interlinear

Syntax of the verbal noun

A progressive aspect can be formed by connecting the verbal noun to the existential verb with the progressive particle Шаблон:Lang. Шаблон:Interlinear

The object of a verbal noun is in the genitive, if it is definite. Шаблон:Interlinear

If a nonfinite clause forms the complement of the verb, the verbal noun stands alone (without a preposition) in the clause. Шаблон:Interlinear

The direct object of a verbal noun complement precedes the verbal noun; the leniting particle Шаблон:Lang "to" is placed between them. Other complements follow. Шаблон:Interlinear

Object pronouns

Generally, an object pronoun or a conjugated preposition stands at the end of a sentence in Irish. Compare this sentence: Шаблон:Interlinear

with the two following sentences:

Шаблон:Interlinear Шаблон:Interlinear

Passive

Irish commonly uses the impersonal form (also called the autonomous form) instead of the passive voice. Шаблон:Interlinear

In the perfect, the passive voice is formed by using the passive participle with the existential verb. Шаблон:Interlinear

Stative verbs

Some verbs describing the state or condition of a person form a progressive present with the existential verb plus 'in (my, your, his etc.)' plus the verbal noun. Шаблон:Interlinear Шаблон:Interlinear

Forms meaning "to be"

Irish, like Spanish and other languages, has two forms that can express the English verb "to be". The two forms perform different grammatical functions.

Existential verb Шаблон:Lang

The existential verb is Шаблон:Lang. It is an irregular verb; see Irish verbs for its conjugation.

Existence, condition or location

This verb expresses the absolute existence of something, its condition, or its location. When accompanied by the adverb Шаблон:Lang "there", it means "exist" or "there is/are". Otherwise, the verb is complemented by an adjective, an adverb or a prepositional phrase. Шаблон:Interlinear Шаблон:Interlinear Шаблон:Interlinear

Definitions

A noun phrase alone cannot form the predicate of the existential verb. Instead, the noun complement is preceded by a form meaning "in my, in your, in his", etc. Шаблон:Interlinear

The copula Шаблон:Lang

The Irish copula is not a verb but a particle, used to express a definition or identification. It may be complemented by a noun, a pronoun, an adjective, or a topicalized phrase. Because it is not a verb, it does not inflect for person or number, and pronouns appear in the disjunctive form.

The copula, which has the realis form Шаблон:Lang, is used for identification and definition:

Definition: X is a Y. Here, the word order is "Is-Y-(pronoun)-X". X is a definite noun or a pronoun. Шаблон:Interlinear Шаблон:Interlinear

Identification: X is the Y. Here the word order is "Is-pronoun-X-Y", or "Is-pronoun-Y-X". There must always be a pronoun between a definite noun and the copula. It would be wrong to say *Is Seán an múinteoir, which would mean "The teacher is a Seán". Шаблон:Interlinear

To identify a first or second person pronoun with a definite noun, it is usual to use the longer form of the personal pronoun, which comes immediately after the copula:

The long form of the personal pronoun is very emphatic and stressed and often ejects the copula entirely. Thus, in the previous four examples, it is possible to leave out the copula, which will then be understood:

If a third-person pronoun with a definite noun is identified, the same construction may be used:

However, in the third person, that is perceived to be much more emphatic than in the first and second persons. The usual way to say "He is the teacher" is

in which the definite noun is flanked by two personal pronouns agreeing with it in gender and number.

When saying "this is", or "that is", Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang are used, in which case Шаблон:Lang is usually dropped:

One can also add "that is in him/her/it", especially when an adjective is used if one wants to emphasise the quality: Шаблон:Interlinear Шаблон:Interlinear That sometimes appears in Hiberno-English, translated literally as "that is in it" or as "so it is".

The present tense of the copula can be used for the future:

The past tense of the copula can be used for the conditional:

The forms Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang are not used after preverbal particles.

If the predicate is definite, the copula is followed by a disjunctive personal pronoun, which may be repeated at the end of the sentence.

If the predicate is indefinite, it follows the copula directly, with the disjunctive pronoun and subject coming at the end.

The copula can also be used to stress an adjective, as in the following instance: Шаблон:Interlinear

Topicalization

Topicalization in Irish is formed by clefting: by fronting the topicalized element as the predicate of the copula, while the rest of the sentence becomes a relative clause. Compare Шаблон:Lang "I said it" with Шаблон:Lang "I said it."

Other uses for the copula

There are other set idiomatic phrases using the copula, as seen in the following examples. Here the predicate consists mostly of either a prepositional phrase or an adjective.

There are also the following constructions: Шаблон:Interlinear Шаблон:Interlinear Шаблон:Interlinear

Answering questions with copula

Since the copula cannot stand alone, the answer must contain either a part of the predicate or a pronoun, both of which follow the copula.

Omission of Шаблон:Lang

In all dialects, the copula Шаблон:Lang may be omitted if the predicate is a noun. (Шаблон:Lang cannot be deleted.) If Шаблон:Lang is omitted, the following Шаблон:Lang preceding the noun is omitted as well.

Comparison of the existential verb and the copula

Both the existential verb and the copula may take a nominal predicate, but the two constructions have slightly different meanings: Шаблон:Lang sounds more permanent: it represents something absolute about Seán; it is a permanent characteristic of Seán that he is a doctor. That is known as an individual-level predicate. In the sentence Шаблон:Lang, one says rather that Seán performs the job of a doctor, he is a doctor at the moment, or he has become a doctor. That is known as a stage-level predicate.

Subordination

Most complementizers (subordinating conjunctions) in Irish cause eclipsis and require the dependent form of irregular verbs. The word order in an Irish subordinate clause is the same as in a main clause. The types of subordination discussed here are: complementation, relative clauses, and wh-questions (which are formed as a kind of relative clause in Irish).

Complementation

Syntactic complementation

The subordinate clause is a part of the main clause in a purely syntactic complementation. In Irish it is introduced by Шаблон:Lang "that" in the positive and Шаблон:Lang "that... not" in the negative. Шаблон:Interlinear Шаблон:Interlinear

Other examples of complex sentences using complementizers:

Conditional complementation

A conditional clause gives the condition under which something will happen. In Irish there are two kinds of conditional clauses, depending on the plausibility of the condition. The particle Шаблон:Lang introduces a conditional clause that is plausible, also called a realis condition. Шаблон:Lang causes lenition and takes the independent form of irregular verbs. Its negated form is Шаблон:Lang and causes eclipsis. Preceding the preterite it is Шаблон:Lang and causes lenition.

If the condition of the clause is hypothetical, also called an irrealis condition or counterfactual conditional, the word Шаблон:Lang is used, which causes eclipsis and takes the dependent form of irregular verbs. The negated equivalent is either Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang, meaning roughly "if it were not the case that...". The verb in both clauses is in the conditional.

Other examples of conditionals are:

Relative clauses

Direct relative

There are two kinds of relative clauses in Irish: direct and indirect. Direct relative clauses begin with the leniting relativizer Шаблон:Lang and the independent form of an irregular verb is used. The direct relative is used when the relative pronoun is the subject or direct object of its clause.

The direct relative is also used in topicalizations, e.g.:

The direct relative is also used after the word Шаблон:Lang "time":

Indirect relative

Indirect relative clauses begin with the eclipsing relativizer Шаблон:Lang (in the preterite with leniting Шаблон:Lang); the dependent form of an irregular verb is used. The indirect relative is used to signify a genitive or the object of a preposition. In these cases, there is a resumptive pronoun in the relative clause.

  • (53a) Шаблон:Lang "the man whose sister was in the hospital" (lit. "the man that his sister was in the hospital")
  • (53b) Шаблон:Lang "the man whose daughter gave him a hundred pounds" or "the man to whom his daughter gave a hundred pounds" (lit. "the man that his daughter gave him a hundred pounds")
  • (53c) Шаблон:Lang "the room that I slept in" (lit. "the room that I slept in it")

The negative form of a relative clause, direct or indirect, is formed with the eclipsing relativizer Шаблон:Lang, or, before the preterite, with the leniting relativizer Шаблон:Lang.

  • (54a) Шаблон:Lang "That's something I don't understand." (direct)
  • (54b) Шаблон:Lang "a woman whose son isn't working" (indirect; lit. "a woman that her son isn't working")

Sometimes a direct relative clause can be ambiguous in meaning, leaving unclear if the relative is accusative or nominative:

  • (55) Шаблон:Lang "the priest who kissed the woman" or "the priest whom the woman kissed"

If the accusative reading is intended, one could use an indirect relative with a resumptive pronoun:

  • (56) Шаблон:Lang "the priest whom the woman kissed" (lit. "the priest that the woman kissed him")

Wh-questions

A wh-question begins with a word such as "who, what, how, when, where, why" etc. In Irish, such questions are constructed as relative clauses, in that they can be constructed as either direct or indirect.

Direct relative wh-questions

Questions with "who, what, how many, which, when" are constructed as direct relative clauses.

Indirect relative wh-questions

Questions with prepositions (i.e. "on what?, with whom?") and questions with "why?" and "where?" are constructed as indirect relative clauses.

Clauses introduced by "how"

There are two words for "how" in Irish: the word Шаблон:Lang takes the direct relative clause, the phrase Шаблон:Lang takes the indirect.

Complementary subordinate clauses in the form of a relative clause

Some complements in Irish take the form of a relative, in that they end in the relative particle Шаблон:Lang; both direct and indirect relative are found.

Direct
Indirect

External links

Шаблон:Irish linguistics Шаблон:Language syntaxes

Партнерские ресурсы
Криптовалюты
Магазины
Хостинг
Разное

Источник — http://wikihandbk.com/ruwiki/index.php?title=Английская_Википедия:Irish_syntax&oldid=15445472