Английская Википедия:Ishara

Ishara (Išḫara) was a goddess originally worshipped in Ebla and other nearby settlements in the north of modern Syria in the third millennium BCE. The origin of her name is disputed, and due to lack of evidence supporting Hurrian or Semitic etymologies it is sometimes assumed it might have originated in a linguistic substrate. In Ebla, she was considered the tutelary goddess of the royal family. An association between her and the city is preserved in a number of later sources from other sites as well. She was also associated with love, and in that role is attested further east in Mesopotamia as well. Multiple sources consider her the goddess of the institution of marriage, though she could be connected to erotic love as well, as evidenced by incantations. She was also linked to oaths and divination. She was associated with reptiles, especially mythical bašmu and ḫulmiẓẓu, and later on with scorpions as well, though it is not certain how this connection initially developed. In Mesopotamian art from the Kassite and Middle Babylonian periods she was only ever represented through her scorpion symbol rather than in anthropomorphic form. She was usually considered to be an unmarried and childless goddess, and she was associated with various deities in different time periods and locations. In Ebla, the middle Euphrates area and Mesopotamia she was closely connected with Ishtar due to their similar character, though they were not necessarily regarded as identical. In the Ur III period, Mesopotamians associated her with Dagan due to both of them being imported to Ur from the west. She was also linked to Ninkarrak. In Hurrian tradition she developed an association with Allani.

The worship of Ishara is well documented in Eblaite texts. Next to Resheph, she has the most attested hypostases of all Eblaite deities, and she was venerated in many settlements in the area controlled by it. Royal devotion to her is well documented. She could receive offerings in the temple of the city god Kura, though she had her own house of worship as well. She retained a connection to Eblaite kingship at least until the seventeenth century BCE, despite many other Eblaite deities ceasing to be worshiped after the initial destruction of the city in the twenty fourth century BCE. She was also worshiped in Nabada in the third millennium BCE already. In Emar she is well documented in texts from the fourteenth and thirteenth centuries BCE, such as accounts of the kissu and zukru festivals, though it has been suggested she was already worshiped there earlier. She is also attested in theophoric names from Mari, Tuttul, Terqa and Ekalte. She was also transferred further east where she came to be incorporated into the Mesopotamian pantheon. She is already attested in Old Akkadian sources from Kish and the Diyala area. She was once again introduced from the west in the Ur III period, and was worshiped by members of the ruling house of the Ur state. Transfer to the north, to Assyria and its karum Kanesh, is also documented. She is also attested in many Babylonian cities in the Old Babylonian period, though in some cases only in theophoric names. She continued to be worshiped through the Kassite and Middle Babylonian periods, and through the first millennium BCE, with late evidence available from Babylon and Uruk. Due to her importance in Syria she was also incorporated into Hurrian religion, and in Hurrian context was worshiped in Alalakh and various cities in Kizzuwatna. She is also attested in Hurrian texts from Ugarit, though she was incorporated into the non-Hurrian pantheon of this city as well. She is also documented in Hittite sources, with individual traditions focused on her introduced to the Hittite Empire from the sixteenth century BCE onward from Syria and Kizzuwatna.

Both Mesopotamian and Hurrian myths involving Ishara are known. As a goddess of marriage, she is referenced in the Epic of Gilgamesh and Atrahasis. In the Hurrian Song of Release she is portrayed as the goddess of Ebla and attempts to save the city from destruction. In the Song of Kumarbi, she is among the deities the narrator invokes to listen to the tale.

Name

Multiple writings of Ishara's name are attested in cuneiform texts.Шаблон:Sfn A bilingual lexical list from Ebla contains the entry ŠARA₈ (BARA₁₀ = GÁ×SIG₇)-ra = iš-ḫa-ra.Шаблон:Sfn Another spelling attested in texts from this city ^dŠÁR-iš.Шаблон:Sfn Name of a month and personal names from Ebla including the sign AMA were proposed to refer to Ishara in publications from the 1980s, but this possibility is not regarded as plausible anymore.Шаблон:Sfn Another possible partially logograpic writing, ^dLAGABxIGI-gunû, has been identified on a fragment of a vase found in Tell Agrab; the name was formerly read as Shara, but as pointed out by Giovanni Marchesi and Nicolo Marchetti, it would be unusual for this Mesopotamian god to be worshiped in this area.Шаблон:Sfn The syllabic spelling ^daš₂-ḫa-ra occurs in a treaty between Naram-Sin of Akkad and an Elamite rulerШаблон:Sfn and reflects the form Ašḫara.Шаблон:Sfn A legal text from Old Babylonian Sippar preserves the variant eš-ḫar-ra.Шаблон:Sfn In the Ugaritic alphabetic script, Ishara's name was usually rendered as ušḫry, though a single instance of išḫr has been identified in the text RS 24.261,Шаблон:Sfn written in Hurrian.Шаблон:Sfn Volkert Haas suggested the Ugaritic form of the name can be romanized as Ušḫara and compared it with a variant attested in a single Hittite text, KUB 27.19,Шаблон:Sfn where the name is written as ^duš-ḫa-ra.Шаблон:Sfn Dennis Pardee vocalizes the Ugaritic form of her name as Ušḫaraya.Шаблон:Sfn The logogram ^dIŠTAR could sometimes be employed to represent Ishara's name in Hurrian sources.Шаблон:Sfn Examples are known from Alalakh.Шаблон:Sfn In some cases it is uncertain whether it designated her, Ishtar or Šauška in personal names from that city.Шаблон:Sfn The variant ^dIŠTAR-ra used the sign -ra as a phonetic indicator, clarifying the name of the goddess meant.Шаблон:Sfn Another logographic writing, ^dÍB.DU₆.KÙ.GA, a synonym of GÍR.TAB, "scorpion", is known from the Mesopotamian god list An = Anum.Шаблон:Sfn The Egyptian version of a treaty with the Hittite Empire from the twenty first year of Ramesses II's reign (1259 BCE)Шаблон:Sfn preserves the spelling isḫr.Шаблон:Sfn Her name is prefaced in this text by the cobra determinative, also used to designate names of Egyptian goddesses in other sources.Шаблон:Sfn

The etymology of Ishara's name has been a subject of Assyriological inquiries since the early twentieth century.Шаблон:Sfn Attempts to prove that it originated in an Indo-European language are limited to scholarship from the first decades of the twentieth century, and have since been conclusively rejected due to lack of evidence that any languages belonging to this family were spoken in the ancient Near East in the third millennium BCE.Шаблон:Sfn Hurrian origin had been ascribed to her early on as well, similarly as in the case of other Eblaite deities (Adamma, Aštabi and Ḫepat), but further excavations in Ebla have shown that all of these deities are already present in documents predating the Hurrian migrations to Syria.Шаблон:Sfn Furthermore, as noted by Doris Prechel, a is atypical as a final vowel in etymologically Hurrian theonyms.Шаблон:Sfn Origin of the name in one of the Semitic languages has also been proposed.Шаблон:Sfn Wilfred G. Lambert considered it possible that Ishara's name was connected to the root *šhr ("dawn"), going as far as proposing this as explanation for her well attested association with Ishtar.Шаблон:Sfn However, doubts about the validity of this proposal have been expressed by Volkert Haas, who considered an origin in a linguistic substrate more likely.Шаблон:Sfn Thorkild Jacobsen's attempt to demonstrate that Ishara's name was derived from the West Semitic root *šʿār, "barley",Шаблон:Sfn is also regarded as implausible as no sources treat her as an agricultural goddess, and none of her epithets connect her with grain.Шаблон:Sfn Lluís Feliu in a more recent study notes that all of the proposed Semitic etymologies for the name of Ishara "do not fit (...) [her] profile very well".Шаблон:Sfn Alfonso Archi states that the name most likely originated in a substrate which was neither Semitic nor Hurrian, and ascribes similar origin to a number of other Eblaite deities, such as Aštabi, Adamma, Kura and NI-da-KUL (Hadabal).Шаблон:Sfn The view that Ishara was one of Syrian deities incorporated into the Hurrian pantheon whose names were derived from a linguistic substrate is also supported by Шаблон:Ill.Шаблон:Sfn Archi identifies the area Ishara was first worshiped in as located east of the city of Ebla itself, but still within its sphere of influence.Шаблон:Sfn This proposal is also supported by Irene Sibbing-Plantholt.Шаблон:Sfn

Character

The oldest attestations of Ishara from Ebla, such as these in documents from the reign of Irkab-Damu, indicate she was a tutelary goddess of the royal house.Шаблон:Sfn Her role differed from that of Kura and Barama, who were also connected to the royal family, but seemingly functioned as a divine reflection of the reigning monarch and his spouse, rather than as dynastic tutelary deities.Шаблон:Sfn According to Joan Goodnick Westenholz, after being transmitted eastwards to Mesopotamia in the third millennium BCE, Ishara lost this aspect of her character.Шаблон:Sfn However, various later sources still recognize her as the tutelary goddess of this city.Шаблон:Sfn A Hurrian text discovered in Emar refers to her as eb-la-be, "of Ebla".Шаблон:Sfn It is also possible that the goddess Iblaītu known from the Tākultu rituals was analogous to her, though she has been alternatively interpreted as an epithet of Ishtar.Шаблон:Sfn Alfonso Archi proposes that she originated as a hypostasis of Ishara associated with Ebla who reached Assyria in the Middle Assyrian period through Hurrian intermediaries.Шаблон:Sfn

Ishara was associated with love in the texts from Ebla,Шаблон:Sfn and Шаблон:Ill speculates this was the oldest aspect of her character.Шаблон:Sfn She was represented in this role in Mesopotamia as well,Шаблон:Sfn in part possibly due to her association with Ishtar,Шаблон:Sfn though Frans Wiggermann regards the two of them as independent from each as goddesses of love.Шаблон:Sfn She could be referred to as the "lady of love",Шаблон:Sfn bēlet râme.Шаблон:Sfn She was specifically connected to the institution of marriage,Шаблон:Sfn as documented in a number of Akkadian šuillakku prayers, which were typically focused on requests of an individual person.Шаблон:Sfn However, as noted by Gioele Zisa incantations associate her with erotic love as well.Шаблон:Sfn

As evidenced by the epithet bēlet bīrim, "lady of divination", which is known from Syrian sources and the god list An = Anum, and references to "Ishara of the prophetesses" in texts from Emar, Ishara was strongly associated with divination and prophecy.Шаблон:Sfn It is presumed that this role first developed in Babylonia in the first half of the second millennium BCE.Шаблон:Sfn According to an Old Babylonian divination compendium, the omen corresponding jointly to her and Ḫišamītum was a red spot below the right armpit.Шаблон:Sfn

Ishara was also invoked as a guardian of oaths.Шаблон:Sfn In this context, she could be referred to as šarrat māmīti, "queen of the oath(s)".Шаблон:Sfn Alfonso Archi has suggested that the sparsely attested theonym Memešarti known from Hurro-Hittite sources was a derivative of this title, with the order of the two components reversed.Шаблон:Sfn However, Шаблон:Ill instead assumes that Memešarti might have been a group of deities, with the name being a collective noun with the Hurrian element -arde.Шаблон:Sfn In Hurrian context, as a deity of oaths Ishara was referred to as elmiweni or elamiweni.Шаблон:Sfn Hurro-Hittite sources indicate she was believed to punish oath-breakers, usually by inflicting them with a disease.Шаблон:Sfn The Hittite verb išḫarišḫ- referred to being inflicted by an "Ishara illness".Шаблон:Sfn It is not known what disease was referred to with this term.Шаблон:Sfn It is also uncertain if the term "hand of Ishara" known from compendiums of omens from Mesopotamia and Emar referred to the same phenomenon.Шаблон:Sfn However, it was also believed that if placated with offerings, Ishara could serve as a healing goddess.Шаблон:Sfn

In Hurrian context, Ishara developed an association with the underworld.Шаблон:Sfn However, according to Wilfred G. Lambert it is also documented for her in Mesopotamia.Шаблон:Sfn

Alfonso Archi notes that in Ebla Ishara sometimes received weapons as offering, much like Hadad, Resheph and Hadabal,Шаблон:Sfn which according to him might indicate she had a warlike aspect as well, which he considers comparable to a similar characteristic of Ishtar.Шаблон:Sfn He proposes that as a warrior goddess she was possibly associated with axes.Шаблон:Sfn

A further epithet applied to Ishara in Mesopotamia, bēlet dadmē, "lady of the dwellings",Шаблон:Sfn is interpreted as an indication of an "urban" or "civic" role, and has been compared to analogous titles of Ishtar, Nanaya, Marduk and Dagan (the last attested in Emar), similarly designating them as the deities linked to the "inhabited regions" and civic life.Шаблон:Sfn

Dennis Pardee states that in Ugaritic context in addition to fulfilling her primary roles as a goddess of oaths and divination, Ishara was also linked to justice.Шаблон:Sfn

Ishara could also be associated with cannabis.Шаблон:Sfn This plant, known in Akkadian as qunnubu, is explained as the "herb of Ishara" in a Neo-Assyrian text, BM 103295.Шаблон:Sfn However, said passage finds no parallel elsewhere.Шаблон:Sfn

Iconography

Файл:Amran Kudurru 02.jpg

A scorpion, the symbolic representation of Ishara, on a kudurru.

Ishara was portrayed as a youthful goddess.Шаблон:Sfn She could be referred to with the Hurrian epithet šiduri, "young woman".Шаблон:Sfn

In Mesopotamia Ishara's symbol was initially the bašmu,Шаблон:Sfn a mythical snake elsewhere associated with underworld gods, such as Tishpak or Ninazu.Шаблон:Sfn In her case, it was connected to oath taking, as attested in sources from the Old Babylonian period.Шаблон:Sfn It has been argued that Ishara's position in the Old Babylonian Nippur god list where she occurs side by side with the snake god Niraḫ also reflects her association with snakes.Шаблон:Sfn However, this view is not universally accepted, and it has been alternatively proposed that the sequence Geshtinanna-Niraḫ-Ishara attested in it does not reflect any theological connections.Шаблон:Sfn A link between Ishara and reptiles is also attested in texts from Ugarit.Шаблон:Sfn KTU 1.115 (RS 24.260) refers to her as ḫlmẓ.Шаблон:Sfn This term is vocalized as ḫulmiẓẓiШаблон:Sfn or ḫulmiẓẓu and is a cognate of Akkadian ḫulmiṭṭu, as well as Hebrew khómet (חֹמֶט), which refers to a type of reptile in Leviticus 11:30, and Syriac ḥulmōtō, "chameleon".Шаблон:Sfn While it has been translated simply as "snake" or "lizard", Aisha Rahmouni proposes that it designates a mythical creature analogous to bašmu, rather than a real animal.Шаблон:Sfn She relies on descriptions of the appearance of the Akkadian ḫulmiṭṭu in lexical texts, which clarify that the term designates a mythical snake with legs.Шаблон:Sfn Dennis Pardee assumes this epithet designated a "reptilian form" of Ishara.Шаблон:Sfn

Файл:Seal of Queen Hama of Assyria, Nimrud (transparent).png

The seal of the Assyrian queen Hamâ with a scorpion symbol possibly representing Ishara.

In later periods in Mesopotamian art, for example on decorated boundary stones (kudurru), Ishara was instead associated with scorpions.Шаблон:Sfn While scorpions are present in Mesopotamian art from the Early Dynastic period already, Doris Prechel stresses that even if they served as symbols of a deity, it cannot be assumed that it necessarily was Ishara.Шаблон:Sfn Neither the reason behind the change in her symbolic animal nor the reasons behind the attribution of either of them are known.Шаблон:Sfn No depictions of her from the Kassite and Middle Babylonian periods are anthropomorphic, and she came to only be represented in art by her symbol.Шаблон:Sfn Incised images of scorpions presumably reflecting this animal's connection with Ishara have been identified on two late Babylonian legal documents signed by prebendaries linked to her.Шаблон:Sfn It has been suggested that scorpions depicted on items which belonged to Assyrian queens might also be connected to the iconography of Ishara, one example being the seal of Hamâ, the wife of Shalmaneser IV, with a goddess accompanied by a scorpion and either a lion or a dog, though the validity of this assumption is not universally accepted.Шаблон:Sfn In Mesopotamian astronomy, Ishara was associated with ^mulgir-tab (literally "scorpion star").Шаблон:Sfn A description of this constellation, which corresponds to Scorpius, is preserved in the compendium MUL.APIN:

Шаблон:Blockquote

Associations with other deities

Family and court

No texts focused on establishing Ishara's genealogy have been identified, and the only reference to other deities being regarded as her parents occurs in a single source from Hattusa.Шаблон:Sfn It documents a Hurrian tradition according to which she was viewed as a daughter of Enlil.Шаблон:Sfn Gary Beckman restores the names of her parents in the relevant passage of this text, which he refers to as the Song of Going Forth, as "Enlil and Apantu", though in a later Enlil occurs with Ninlil instead.Шаблон:Sfn Alfonso Archi in his translation of the same passage chooses to leave the names blank.Шаблон:Sfn

According to Volkert Haas Ishara was regarded as both unmarried and childless.Шаблон:Sfn Archi states that she was one of the three most commonly worshiped Hurrian goddesses who had no spouses, the other two being Allani and Šauška.Шаблон:Sfn Lluís Felieu notes that while Ishara was associated with various male deities in different time periods and locations, most evidence does not indicate that she was believed to have a permanent spouse in other traditions either.Шаблон:Sfn In a number of Mesopotamian love incantations, she is paired with almanu, a common noun of uncertain meaning whose proposed translations include "widower", "man without family obligations", or simply "lover".Шаблон:Sfn In one case the term is written with a divine determinative, as if it were the proper name of a deity.Шаблон:Sfn Ishara and almanu can occur in parallel with Ishtar and Dumuzi and Nanaya and an unnamed lover.Шаблон:Sfn A single Mesopotamian text commenting on magical formulas meant to protect a house from supernatural invaders refers to the Sebitti as her sons, but Frans Wiggermann in his study of this group of gods assumes that this should be considered a result of confusion between Ishara and similarly named underworld god Enmesharra, whose children the Sebitti were frequently identified as.Шаблон:Sfn

In the Mesopotamian Weidner god list, Ishara appears among deities associated with Adad,Шаблон:Sfn after this god himself, his wife Shala and their son Mīšaru, and before ^dMAŠ-da-ad (reading of the first sign after the determinative is uncertain) and Geshtinanna.Шаблон:Sfn In An = Anum she is placed in the section dedicated to Enlil and his entourage.Шаблон:Sfn Doris Prechel notes it offers a parallel to their connection in Hurrian tradition.Шаблон:Sfn She is also present in the section focused on Ishtar, and in a further passage which according to Prechel deals with the circles of Adad, Shamash and Ea.Шаблон:Sfn In the last case she is equated with Nisaba, but the reasons behind this connection remain uncertain,Шаблон:Sfn and it might depend only on the use of the theonym ME.ME as a logogram to represent both of these names.Шаблон:Sfn An = Anum also states that Ishara had an attendant (^munusSUKKAL) named Tašme-zikru (Akkadian: "She answered my word" or "She answered the word"), a minor goddess also attested in the Isin god list.Шаблон:Sfn A further Mesopotamian deity associated with her was Ningirima, a goddess associated with incantations, who shared her connection with snakes and with the "scorpion star".Шаблон:Sfn

In Kizzuwatna, Ḫalma and Tuḫḫitra belonged to the entourage of Ishara.Шаблон:Sfn Another deity associated with her in the same sources was Saggar, assumed to be analogous to the Eblaite Sanugaru, who was worshiped with her in Mane in the third millennium BCE already.Шаблон:Sfn He was likely a moon god.Шаблон:Sfn The compilers of An = Anum labeled him as the spouse of Ishara.Шаблон:Sfn According to Volkert Haas, a connection between them is also attested in sources from Emar and the Khabur area.Шаблон:Sfn Doris Prechel instead states that while both Saggar and Ḫalma are attested in texts from Emar, neither of them shows an apparent connection to Ishara in this context.Шаблон:Sfn Other moon gods were associated with Ishara in Hurro-Hittite oath formulas.Шаблон:Sfn In this context she was frequently linked with the Hurrian moon god, Kušuḫ (Umbu) and his spouse Nikkal due to their shared role as protectors of oaths.Шаблон:Sfn

In Emar, Ishara could also be paired with the city god designated by the sumerogram ^dNIN.URTA, possibly to be identified with Il Imari, "the god of Emar", attested in sources from the same site.Шаблон:Sfn Prechel additionally notes that in Babylon her temple was located close to that dedicated to Ninurta.Шаблон:Sfn

Ishara and Ishtar

Ishtar (written logographically as ^dINANNAШаблон:Sfn or syllabically as ^daš-darШаблон:Sfn) already appears alongside Ishara in Eblaite texts, including a ritual performed by the royal couple which involved statues of both of them, in which she is referred to as Labutu, a cognate of her well attested Akkadian epithet lābatu ("lioness").Шаблон:Sfn A theophoric name, Išḫara-ki-Ištar, "Ishara is like Ishtar", indicates they were also seen as similar in popular religion in the upper Euphrates area.Шаблон:Sfn The association between both of them and the western Ashtart is well attested in god lists from Ugarit.Шаблон:Sfn Alfonso Archi proposes that the perception of Ishtar and Ishara as similar figures might have originally developed due to the former being superimposed over the latter's original position in Ebla.Шаблон:Sfn

In Mesopotamia Ishara and Ishtar were associated with each other as goddesses of love, as already attested in Old Akkadian love incantations.Шаблон:Sfn In later periods they were invoked in them alongside Nanaya, Kanisurra and Gazbaba as well.Шаблон:Sfn Some of these texts use formulas such as "at the command of Kanisurra and Ishara, patron goddess of love"Шаблон:Sfn or "at the command of Kanisurra and Ishara, patroness of sex".Шаблон:Sfn In the incantation series Šurpu, Ishara is listed alongside multiple goddesses who could be regarded as hypostases of Ishtar, including Bēlet-ayyaki (Ishtar of Uruk), Annunitum and Šiduri.Шаблон:Sfn However, as pointed out by Joan Goodnick Westenholz, a passage from Atrahasis commonly used in modern literature to argue the two were one and the same in Mesopotamian perception does not actually state that Ishtar was identical with Ishara, as the noun ištar is not preceded by the dingir sign, so-called "divine determinative," in it, and as such should be translated as the generic term "goddess" rather than as the theonym Ishtar.Шаблон:Sfn The use of ištar or ištarum or as a common noun which could refer to any goddess, a synonym of iltum, the feminine form of ilu ("god"), goes back to the Old Babylonian period.Шаблон:Sfn To differentiate it from the name Ishtar, it was consistently written without the divine determinative.Шаблон:Sfn

Ishara and Dagan

Oldest evidence for a connection between Ishara and Dagan comes from the Ur III period, specifically from the reign of Shu-Sin, and they continued to appear together in texts from the reigns of his successors Amar-Sin and Ibbi-Sin as well.Шаблон:Sfn However, the connection between them was limited to Mesopotamian sources, with no attestations from other areas, and was most likely rooted only in their shared western origin and the resulting foreign status they shared in the eyes of Mesopotamian theologians.Шаблон:Sfn A secondary factor might have been a shared connection to divination.Шаблон:Sfn Western sources from modern Syria do not link them with each other.Шаблон:Sfn In the god list An = Anum both Ishara and Dagan are placed in the section dedicated to Enlil, but no relation between them is indicated.Шаблон:Sfn

While Wilfred G. Lambert proposed in 1980 that Ishara was sometimes regarded as the wife of Dagan,Шаблон:Sfn and this theory is repeated as fact in older reference works such as Jeremy Black's and Anthony Green's Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia,Шаблон:Sfn in a more recent study Lluís Feliu arrived at the opposite conclusions.Шаблон:Sfn He points out the relation between Ishara and Dagan is effectively restricted to the royal ceremonies of the Third Dynasty of Ur, and does not recur in other periods, and concludes Ishara effectively had no husband, though she could be associated with various male deities in specific locations and time periods.Шаблон:Sfn Feliu additionally points out that Lambert relying on this assumption also wrongly concluded Ishara was one and the same as Ḫabūrītum, a goddess who represented the river Khabur who is also attested in association with Dagan in Mesopotamia.Шаблон:Sfn He notes that Ḫabūrītum and Ishara at times appear in the same documents, and cannot be the same deity.Шаблон:Sfn This view is also supported by Alfonso Archi.Шаблон:Sfn He considers it more likely that Haburitum was analogous to Belet Nagar.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Sfn Like Feliu, he assumes it is not plausible that Ishara was ever regarded as Dagan's wife, at least partially because of her Ishtar-like characteristics.Шаблон:Sfn

Ishara and Ninkarrak

A number of sources attest the existence of a connection between Ishara and the medicine goddess Ninkarrak, including an Old Assyrian treaty, a curse formula from Emar, and a god list from Mari.Шаблон:Sfn Additionally both appear, though not next to each other, in Naram-Sin's treaty with Elam.Шаблон:Sfn In An = Anum, the name Meme is applied both to Ishara and to Ninkarrak.Шаблон:Sfn

Joan Goodnick Westenholz assumed that the association between Ishara and Ninkarrak might have developed due to shared origin in Syria.Шаблон:Sfn Irene Sibbing-Plantholt more broadly connects it with both of them being worshiped on the peripheries of Mesopotamia, both in the west and in the east.Шаблон:Sfn She also notes that since Ninkarrak was typically associated with dogs, and Ishara with snakes and scorpions, their functions might have been viewed as complementary.Шаблон:Sfn

Ishara and Allani

In Hurrian context, as an underworld deity, Ishara was closely associated with Allani, the queen of the dead.Шаблон:Sfn The connection between them is already present in documents from the Ur III period.Шаблон:Sfn It might have been in part influenced by an association between Ishara and the Hurrian primeval deities,Шаблон:Sfn which in turn developed due to her own underworld aspect.Шаблон:Sfn Veneration of Ishara and Allani as a pair was an example of a broader phenomenon frequently attested in Hurrian sources, the worship of pairs of deities with similar spheres of influence as dyads, as also attested in the cases of Šauška's attendants Ninatta and Kulitta, the fate goddesses Hutena and Hutellura, Ḫepat and her son Šarruma,Шаблон:Sfn or the astral deities Pinikir and DINGIR.GE₆, so-called Goddess of the Night.Шаблон:Sfn

Volkert Haas suggested that the placement of Ishara after Arsay in an Ugaritic offering list was a reflection of her association with Allani, as these two goddesses were seemingly regarded as analogous.Шаблон:Sfn

Worship

Ebla

The worship of Ishara is well attested in sources from various sites from ancient Syria, starting with the texts from Ebla from the third millennium BCE.Шаблон:Sfn It represented a tradition deeply rooted in the Eblaite territory, which encompassed the area located between the modern border between Syria and Turkey in the north up to Emesa (Homs) and Qatna in the south, and from Jebel Ansariyah in the west to Emar and the Euphrates in the east.Шаблон:Sfn Numerous settlements where Ishara was worshiped are mentioned in the Eblaite text corpus.Шаблон:Sfn She is one of the two deities with the largest number of local hypostases, the other being Resheph, with ten attested for each of them in texts known as of 2020.Шаблон:Sfn These included Isharas of Aḫadamu, Arugadu, Banaium, Guwalu, Mane, Uguaš, wa-NE-du^ki, Zidara, Zitilu and Zuramu.Шаблон:Sfn However, only Mane was a city considered significant from the administrative point of view, as it functioned as Ebla's harbor on the Euphrates.Шаблон:Sfn While most of these settlements were not a destination of royal pilgrimages,Шаблон:Sfn some of them were visited by queens.Шаблон:Sfn Such evidence exists for Zuramu, Uguaš and Mane.Шаблон:Sfn A journey to these sanctuaries of Ishara was undertaken by the queen mother Dusigu at one point.Шаблон:Sfn All three were under the control of Ebla at the time.Шаблон:Sfn Offerings to Ishara of Zidara made by the queen and various princesses are also attested, though they took place in Ebla itself.Шаблон:Sfn A number of references to Ishara being worshiped in the three cult centers of Hadabal, Arugadu, Hamadu and Luban, have been identified as well.Шаблон:Sfn According to Alfonso Archi, in the first of these cities she was venerated in association with Eblaite rulers, as it served as their secondary residence.Шаблон:Sfn

"Ishara of the king", a hypostasis meant to serve as a protector of the reigning Eblaite monarch, was worshiped in the temple of the city god Kura.Шаблон:Sfn A statue of the royal hypostasis of Ishara was placed inside, and she could receive offerings in this building.Шаблон:Sfn However, a separate temple dedicated to her existed in Ebla too.Шаблон:Sfn Administrative texts indicate that multiple members of the Eblaite royal family and court were devotees of Ishara.Шаблон:Sfn Personal devotion to the royal aspect of Ishara is best documented among women belonging to the royal house, such as Dusigu, the wife of Irkab-Damu and Kešdutu, a princess who was eventually sent to marry the king of Kish.Шаблон:Sfn As an extension of her role in the royal cult, Ishara was worshiped during rituals connected to weddings of kings.Шаблон:Sfn During preparations for it, the future Eblaite queen was expected to make offerings to Ishara and Kura.Шаблон:Sfn The king instead made offerings to her after the return from the ceremony, which took place outside the city.Шаблон:Sfn In Darib near Ebla, possibly to be identified with modern Atarib, Ishara was invoked in connection with the funerary cult of deceased Eblaite kings, alongside a god associated with this locality whose name is not preserved and the divine pairs of Hadabal and his nameless spouse, Resheph and Adamma and Agu and Guladu.Шаблон:Sfn A form of Ishara linked to king Kun-damu was worshiped by his successors.Шаблон:Sfn She is still attested as late as thirty years after his death.Шаблон:Sfn In addition to such hypostases linked to the royal family, specifically to individual kings and queens mothers, one linked to the vizier Arrukum is also attested.Шаблон:Sfn Further hypostases, a pair consisting of "major" (MAḪ) and "minor" (TUR) Isharas, are attested in an inventory of weapons.Шаблон:Sfn

Both male and female servants (pa₄-šeš) of Ishara are attested in the Eblaite texts.Шаблон:Sfn

A single Eblaite document attests that Ishara was asked to purify the royal garden, though this location was more commonly associated with the local form of the god Ea,Шаблон:Sfn Ḥayya.Шаблон:Sfn Sheis also attested in an Eblaite incantation (ARET V 16), which is dedicated to the Balikh River, here treated as a deity and addressed in the plural, the earth (ki), and other local deities, namely Hadda, Ammarik, Adarwan and Kamiš.Шаблон:Sfn

With a single exception, Iti-Išḫara (I-ti-^dŠARA₈), the name of a messenger (U₅) from Irpeš, a city located near the border with the kingdom of Emar, no theophoric names invoking Ishara are known from the Ebla text corpus.Шаблон:Sfn Alfonso Archi considers this to be an example of a broader phenomenon, as with the exception of Kura the deities worshiped in this city who might have originated in a substrate are largely absent from the onomasticon, which might indicate that the name giving patterns in Ebla reflected not the popular religion in the documented period, but rather a more archaic tradition.Шаблон:Sfn

Ebla was completely destroyed in the second half of the twenty fourth century BCE,Шаблон:Sfn which resulted in the dissolution of the original form of the Eblaite pantheon.Шаблон:Sfn However, in contrast with other Eblaite deities Ishara continued to be worshiped due to being incorporated into various other pantheons across Syria, Mesopotamia and eastern Anatolia.Шаблон:Sfn The association between her and Eblaite kingship persisted at least until the seventeenth century BCE.Шаблон:Sfn A later king of Ebla, Indilimma, referred to himself as a servant of Ishara on his personal seal.Шаблон:Sfn

Other early Syrian sites

Ishara is attested in sources from Nabada, a settlement in the Khabur Triangle which in the period documented in the Eblaite archive was under the control of Nagar.Шаблон:Sfn While a month in the local calendar was named after Ishara, other major deities from the pantheon of Ebla like Kura or Hadabal are entirely absent.Шаблон:Sfn

Ishara was also worshiped in Emar.Шаблон:Sfn Alfonso Archi presumes she was already worshiped there in early periods, much like in Ebla, and the evidence from the Emar text corpus, which has been dated to fourteenth and thirteenth centuries BCE, deals with the continuation of her already well established cult.Шаблон:Sfn Next to Dagan and ^dNIN.URTA she was one of the principal deities of this city.Шаблон:Sfn This position has been described as typical for her in the tradition of northern Syria.Шаблон:Sfn She was one of the five deities celebrated during the kissu festivals described in texts from Emar, which might have taken place in Šatappi, a settlement located further south.Шаблон:Sfn The nature of these celebrations remain uncertain.Шаблон:Sfn The kissu was not a part of the religious calendar of the city, and presumably only happened rarely.Шаблон:Sfn She was celebrated in it alongside the city god ^dNIN.URTA.Шаблон:Sfn She is also present in descriptions of the analogous festival dedicated to Dagan, alongside deities such as Shuwala and Ugur.Шаблон:Sfn For unknown reasons, Ishara's status in the local pantheon is seemingly not acknowledged in the instructions for another local festival, zukru, where three of her hypostases - "mistress of the city" (GAŠAN URU.KI), "of the king" (ša LUGAL) and "of the prophetesses" (ša ^f.mešmu_x-nab-bi-ti) - occur separately from other major deities of the city, among these considered to be of secondary importance.Шаблон:Sfn It is known that a shrine dedicated to the first of these forms existed.Шаблон:Sfn Ishara also appears in curses in administrative texts meant to prevent breaking oaths.Шаблон:Sfn Curse formulas pair her with deities such as the city god, the weather god, Dagan or Ninkarrak.Шаблон:Sfn A text listing various objects tied to the worship of Ishara and regarded as her property is also known.Шаблон:Sfn Multiple theophoric names invoking her have been identified in texts from Emar as well.Шаблон:Sfn

Ishara is one of the deities invoked in a curse formula in an Old Babylonian inscription found in the citadel of Aleppo alongside Dagan, Sin, Nergal and Shamash, but the section focused on her is not preserved.Шаблон:Sfn

Numerous theophoric names invoking Ishara are mentioned in the Mari text corpus,Шаблон:Sfn with a total of 34 identified as of 2020.Шаблон:Sfn Many of them belonged to women.Шаблон:Sfn Overall in feminine names she is the third most frequently occurring goddess.Шаблон:Sfn However, in cases where the place of origin of their bearers is specified, usually they are not from the city itself.Шаблон:Sfn Examples include Iddin-Išḫara from Barḫān near Saggāratum,Шаблон:Sfn Ḫabdu-Išḫara from Dēr (modern Abu Kamal),Шаблон:Sfn Tupki-Išḫara from Emar,Шаблон:Sfn Išḫara-asīya from Ḫišamta (a city near Terqa),Шаблон:Sfn Zū-Išḫara (or possibly Warad-Išḫara) from Tuttul,Шаблон:Sfn Išḫara-zamrati from Ya'il, a village located on the border between the districts of Terqa and Saggāratum whose inhabitants are well represented in the textual record,Шаблон:Sfn and Išḫara-pilaḫ from Zurubbān, located on the bank of the Euphrates near Terqa and later Dura Europos.Шаблон:Sfn Additionally, seven names of deportees from the Upper Khabur area between Sinjar Mountains and Mount Abdulaziz invoke Ishara, including those of three men, Ḫabdu-Išḫara, Išḫara-malakī and Pandi-Išḫara, and four women, Išḫara-damqa, Išḫara-naḫmī, Išḫara-nērī and Išḫara-ummī.Шаблон:Sfn A text from the Asqudum archive from Mari mentions the offering of an ewe to Ishara.Шаблон:Sfn

A selection of similar theophoric names as these known from Mari have been identified in texts from Terqa, Tuttul and Ekalte, though they were less frequent in these cases.Шаблон:Sfn Examples from Tuttul include Abdu-Ishara ("servant of Ishara"),Шаблон:Sfn La-Ishara ("one belonging to Ishara")Шаблон:Sfn and Zu-Ishara ("the one of Ishara").Шаблон:Sfn

Mesopotamian reception

Early attestations

In the third millennium BCE Ishara reached Mesopotamia, most likely with Mari serving as the intermediary.Шаблон:Sfn She is already mentioned in sources from the Old Akkadian period, though these early attestations are not numerous.Шаблон:Sfn She is one of the five Mesopotamian deities mentioned in a treaty between Naram-Sin of Akkad and an Elamite monarch, the other four being Ilaba, Manzat, Ninkarrak and Ninurta.Шаблон:Sfn A further early attestation is a love incantation from Tell Ingharra, an archeological site located near Kish.Шаблон:Sfn

It is also known that Ishara was worshiped in the Diyala area.Шаблон:Sfn She is already mentioned in an administrative text from the Old Akkadian period dealing with the provisions of oil for her cult in Išur, a city located near Tutub which was under the control of Eshnunna, and in a single theophoric name from Tutub itself, ME-Išḫara.Шаблон:Sfn Ishara of Išur is also referenced in a later treaty between Шаблон:Ill of Eshnunna, Sîn-kāšid of Uruk and Sin-Iddinam of Larsa, known from an unprovenanced copy, in which an oath formula of the first of these three kings invokes her, Sin, Tishpak and Adad.Шаблон:Sfn She was also worshiped in Eshnunna itself and in Tell Ishchali.Шаблон:Sfn Old Babylonian texts from the latter site mention a settlement named Dūr-Išḫara, whose location is presently unknown.Шаблон:Sfn Ishara was also likely venerated in Tell Agrab.Шаблон:Sfn She is additionally attested in personal names from the Chogha Gavaneh site in western Iran, which in the early second millennium BCE was a predominantly Akkadian settlement possibly connected to the kingdom of Eshnunna.Шаблон:Sfn

Ur III period

Further south in Babylonia Ishara does not occur before the Ur III period.Шаблон:Sfn However, she is well attested in the Puzrish-Dagan archives from the reign of Shulgi onward,Шаблон:Sfn and in contemporary texts from Umma.Шаблон:Sfn This situation has been described as a case of "reimporting" a foreign goddess already known in Mesopotamia before.Шаблон:Sfn Multiple deities introduced to southern Mesopotamia at the time were associated with specific western lands: Ishara with the area surrounding Ebla, Dagan (and his spouse Shalash) with the middle Euphrates, and Belet Nagar, the goddess of Nagar (Tell Brak), with Khabur.Шаблон:Sfn A temple dedicated jointly to Dagan and Ishara is documented in texts from this period, and while they do not specify its location, other evidence, such as theophoric names of associated officials, indicate it might have been located in Nippur.Шаблон:Sfn Another house of worship, which Ishara shared with Belet Nagar, existed in Ur.Шаблон:Sfn

For uncertain reasons, the veneration of Ishara by the royal family of the Ur III state is particularly well attested.Шаблон:Sfn The earliest example is a text from Puzrish-Dagan mentioning offerings made to her, Allatum, Annunitum, Ulmašītum and the pair Belet-Šuḫnir and Belet-Terraban by Shulgi-simti, a wife of Shulgi.Шаблон:Sfn She is well documented in the personal archive of this queen.Шаблон:Sfn Offerings made to her on behalf of Шаблон:Ill alongside these aimed at Dagan, Ḫabūrītum or Inanna are also attested.Шаблон:Sfn During the reign of Shu-Sin, she received offerings at the royal court in Ur.Шаблон:Sfn In the same period, she was worshiped during the erabbatum ceremony, possibly representation occasions when a deity was believed to enter the corresponding temple after a period spent outside it, for example during rituals held in the king's palace.Шаблон:Sfn She also seemingly received offerings in Nippur, though the text documenting them is considered atypical due to lack of parallels to the list of deities mentioned in it.Шаблон:Sfn All of these documents come from Puzrish-Dagan, which at the time served as a center of distribution of sacrificial animals.Шаблон:Sfn

There is no evidence that the worship of Ishara was widespread in Mesopotamia in the Ur III period.Шаблон:Sfn Theophoric names invoking her are uncommon in relevant sources, with the attested examples including NÌ-Išḫara (reading of the first sign is uncertain) identified in a text from Puzrish-Dagan from the reign of Shulgi and a number of separate individuals named Šū-Išḫara, "he of Ishara".Шаблон:Sfn One of them was a representative of Mari who visited the royal court in Ur alongside Ili-Dagan of Ebla during the sixth year of Amar-Sin's reign.Шаблон:Sfn Another Šū-Išḫara hailed from Babaz, an otherwise unknown location.Шаблон:Sfn

Old Assyrian period

Transmission of the cult of Ishara to the north is also attested.Шаблон:Sfn She was worshiped by Old Assyrian merchants in Kanesh, though in this context she should be understood as a Mesopotamian, rather than Anatolian, deity.Шаблон:Sfn A temple dedicated to her existed in the city.Шаблон:Sfn She received regular offerings in it.Шаблон:Sfn One text mentions that two figures of wild bulls were sent to Kanesh for Ishara and Ishtar.Шаблон:Sfn However, references to her are not common in the texts from the karum.Шаблон:Sfn It has been noted that no evidence had been found for her functioning as the family deity of any of its inhabitants.Шаблон:Sfn Some of the texts from Kanesh mention a priestess bearing the theophoric name Ummī-Išhara, who was a daughter of one of the traders, though she resided in Assur rather than in the karum.Шаблон:Sfn

In a treaty between Assyria and a king of Apum, Till-abnu (reigned in the middle of the eighteenth century BCE) from Tell Leilan (Shubat-Enlil), Ishara appears as one of the divine witnesses.Шаблон:Sfn It is not certain with which of these two states she is linked in this context.Шаблон:Sfn She was also worshiped in Chagar Bazar (Ašnakkum) while this site was under Assyrian control, as attested in texts from the reign of Shamshi-Adad I.Шаблон:Sfn Three names invoking her have been identified in sources from this site: Ḫazip-Išḫara, Ibbi-Išḫara and Išḫara-šemēt.Шаблон:Sfn According to Volkert Haas Tell al-Rimah was seemingly the northeastern limit of the extent of her cult in Mesopotamia, as evidenced by sources from this site which mention "Ishara of Artanya".Шаблон:Sfn This hypostasis is attested in a text describing offerings made to her, Ishtar of Ninêt and Ishtar of Qattara by a certain Iltani.Шаблон:Sfn Neither this hypostasis of Ishara not the associated settlement are known from any other sources.Шаблон:Sfn

Old Babylonian period

Ishara also continued to be worshiped in Babylonia after the fall of the Ur III state, through the Old Babylonian period.Шаблон:Sfn One of the earliest pieces of evidence is an offering list from Nippur from the reign of Warad-Sin of Larsa.Шаблон:Sfn A temple of Ishara is mentioned in a text from Larsa dated to the reign of Hammurabi, but its location is unspecified.Шаблон:Sfn She was also worshiped in Kish and near it, possibly in Ilip or Harbidum, as attested by references to a temple and a number of theophoric names.Шаблон:Sfn Another temple dedicated to her existed in Sippar.Шаблон:Sfn Offering lists from this city mention her too.Шаблон:Sfn A legal text refers to an oath sworn by the snake (ba-aš-mu-um) of Ishara.Шаблон:Sfn The formula "servant of Ishara" occurs in an inscription on a seal of a certain Illuratum.Шаблон:Sfn Multiple theophoric names invoking her have been identified in texts from Sippar, for example Abdu-Išḫara ("servant of Ishara"), Malik-Išḫara ("Ishara is an advisor") or Nūr-Išḫara ("light of Ishara").Шаблон:Sfn Theophoric names invoking her are also attested in Old Babylonian texts from Dilbat, but they are uncommon in this corpus.Шаблон:Sfn Evidence from Ur is similarly limited to theophoric names.Шаблон:Sfn At some point, possibly also in the Old Babylonian period, Ishara was also presumably worshiped in Kisurra, as an incantation known from a Neo-Assyrian copy refers to her as the queen of this city (šar-rat ki-sur-ri-e^ki).Шаблон:Sfn

Late attestations

The number of theophoric names invoking Ishara declined after the Old Babylonian period.Шаблон:Sfn She appears in three in the text corpus from Nippur from the Kassite period.Шаблон:Sfn Two of them, Rabâ-(epšētu-)ša-Išḫara, "great are (the deeds) of Ishara" and Išḫara-šarrat, "Ishara is queen", occur in texts dated to the reign of Nazi-Maruttash.Шаблон:Sfn She is also referenced in a number of inscriptions on kudurru, inscribed boundary stones, as first attested during the reign of Meli-Shipak.Шаблон:Sfn One such object from the reign of Nazi-Maruttash mentions her in an explanation of symbols used to decorate the stones.Шаблон:Sfn Another kudurru inscription invoking her has been dated to the reign of Marduk-nādin-aḫḫē, but its provenance is unknown.Шаблон:Sfn An inscription of Adad-nirari I mentions the rebuilding of a chapel of Ishara inside E-me-Inanna, "house of the me of Inanna", the temple of Ishtar-Aššuritu in Assur.Шаблон:Sfn Its own ceremonial name is unknown.Шаблон:Sfn

In the first millennium BCE, Mesopotamia was the only area where Ishara continued to be worshiped, with attestations available from both Assyria and Babylonia.Шаблон:Sfn The so-called Götteradressbuch, a late Assyrian text, indicates that in Assur she was venerated in the temple of Ea.Шаблон:Sfn The sources pertaining to the tākultu ritual place her among the deities associated with the temple of Adad and Anu in Assur.Шаблон:Sfn A šuillakku prayer to Ishara belonged to a series dedicated to "great of sublime goddesses" (ištarāte rabâte u ṣīrāte), a part of which has been discovered in the temple of Nabu in Nimrud, though a reference to her only occurs in a catchline in the end of the recovered tablet briefly describing the contents of the presently lost next part.Шаблон:Sfn She was also worshiped in the city of Babylon,Шаблон:Sfn though this constituted a late development.Шаблон:Sfn She nonetheless had her own temple there.Шаблон:Sfn It bore the ceremonial name Ešasurra, "house of the womb", and according to Andrew R. George can be identified with the building designated as "temple Z" during excavations.Шаблон:Sfn It is only known from topographical texts and a single administrative tablet.Шаблон:Sfn A street named after Ishara might have existed in the same city.Шаблон:Sfn A cultic calendar indicates that she continued to be worshiped in Babylon in the Hellenistic period.Шаблон:Sfn

Ishara is also attested in Seleucid sources from Uruk, though she is absent from earlier Neo-Babylonian texts from the same location.Шаблон:Sfn It has been pointed out that she is mentioned in a description of the customs of Uruk in the Old Babylonian version of the Epic of Gilgamesh, but her role in the contemporary religious life of the city is uncertain.Шаблон:Sfn In the Seleucid period she was seemingly worshiped in the temple of Bēlet-īli.Шаблон:Sfn According to Julia Krul she was presumably introduced to the local pantheon in the late first millennium BCE due to her well attested connection with Ishtar documented in god lists, similarly to Ninsianna.Шаблон:Sfn

Hurrian reception

Файл:Statue of King Idrimi-IMG 4553-black.jpg

Statue of king Idrimi of Alalakh, whose inscriptions designate Ishara as the "lady" of his city.Шаблон:Sfn

Due to being worshiped in many locations in Syria in the third and second millennia BCE, Ishara was also incorporated into the Hurrian pantheon.Шаблон:Sfn She appears in standard offering lists (Шаблон:Ill) of Ḫepat, between Hutena-Hutellura and Allani.Шаблон:Sfn She is listed among Hurrian deities worshiped in the Mitanni Empire in the Šattiwaza treaty, where she is placed after Damkina.Шаблон:Sfn She was also venerated in Mardaman, east of the Tigris.Шаблон:Sfn A further location where she is attested in Hurrian context is Alalakh, a Hurrianized city in western Syria.Шаблон:Sfn She was called the "Lady of Alalakh", as indicated by an inscription of king Idrimi.Шаблон:Sfn According to Шаблон:Ill, she was the third most important deity in the pantheon of that city, after the storm god (Teshub) and the sun god (Šimige).Шаблон:Sfn However, the oldest evidence for the veneration of Ishara in this city, dated from the Old Babylonian period, is limited to theophoric names.Шаблон:Sfn Most of them are Hurrian, for example Eḫli-Išḫara ("Išḫara saves"), Ewri-Išḫara ("Išḫara is king"), Taki-Išḫara ("Išḫara is beautiful") and Wanti-Išḫara (meaning unknown), though Ummī-Išḫara ("my mother is Išḫara") is an exception.Шаблон:Sfn A reference to a SANGA priest in her service, a certain Tulpiya, is also known.Шаблон:Sfn

Kizzuwatna

The Hurrian traditions pertaining to the worship of Ishara were part of the religion of the kingdom of Kizzuwatna.Шаблон:Sfn According to Volkert Haas she was its most important goddess.Шаблон:Sfn She is best attested in association with the areas surrounding Tarša (Tarsus) and Neriša.Шаблон:Sfn A mountain named after Ishara existed in the proximity of the latter city, and a temple dedicated to her was located on it.Шаблон:Sfn She was also venerated in Kummanni.Шаблон:Sfn A local king, Talzu, contributed to the spread of the cult of her hypostasis linked to the city of Neriša, and additionally assigned fields in various villages to her clergy, which was a privilege later reaffirmed by his successor Šunaššura and then by Hittite kings when Kizzuwatna became a part of the Hittite Empire.Шаблон:Sfn

Buildings referred to as ḫamri were associated with Ishara, and she could accordingly be described as ḫamrawann(i)-, "inhabitant of ḫamri".Шаблон:Sfn Hittite texts also preserve the form Ḫamrišḫara, which does not follow usual rules of Hittite inflection and as such is likely to be a loan from Akkadian, to be understood as "ḫamri of Ishara".Шаблон:Sfn The etymology of the term ḫamri is uncertain, and while both Hurrian and Amorite origin has been proposed for it, it might have instead originated in a linguistic substrate at some point spoken in Upper Mesopotamia.Шаблон:Sfn Buildings designated by this term are mentioned in Anatolian texts written in Hurrian, Luwian and Hittite, but their earliest attestations go back to Upper Mesopotamia and northern Babylonia in the early second millennium BCE.Шаблон:Sfn They functioned as an institution connected to swearing oaths, rather than as temples of specific deities.Шаблон:Sfn Different deities were linked to them in different areas, with various weather gods, Ashur and possibly Shamash attested in addition to Ishara.Шаблон:Sfn

The worship of Ishara in Kizzuwatna involved priestesses designated by the akkadogram ĒNTU.Шаблон:Sfn It was read in this context as katra or katri, and the women designated by it were otherwise only involved in the worship of the so-called "Goddess of the Night",Шаблон:Sfn a Hurrian deityШаблон:Sfn whose name was always written logographically and as such remains uncertain.Шаблон:Sfn Another class of clergy of Ishara were the išḫaralli priestesses, who were not associated with any other deities.Шаблон:Sfn They were involved in funerary rituals.Шаблон:Sfn

Ishara was also one of the three main goddesses venerated during the Шаблон:Ill festival, the other two being Lelluri and Maliya.Шаблон:Sfn During this celebration, which was meant to guarantee good fortune for the royal couple, she received offerings alongside "Teshub Manuzi," Lelluri, Allani, two hypostases of Nupatik (pibithi - "of Pibid(a)" and zalmathi - "of Zalman(a)/Zalmat") and Maliya.Шаблон:Sfn Instructions for this celebration prescribe covering the statue of Ishara with a red draped garment, while that of Allani with an identical blue one.Шаблон:Sfn Another Kizzuwatnean festival, dedicated specifically to Ishara, took place in autumn.Шаблон:Sfn

Ugarit

Ishara was one of the Hurrian deities worshiped in Ugarit.Шаблон:Sfn An incantation from this site written in Hurrian but using the local alphabetic script (RS 24.285 = KTU³ 1.131) is focused on her and invokes her to

Шаблон:Blockquote

All of the toponyms listed appear to be pairs consisting of a city located on the Euphrates and another close to the Mediterranean coast, and on this basis Jacob Lauinger proposes that the intent might be to delineate the borders of the former kingdom of Yamhad.Шаблон:Sfn The only exceptions are Ugarit and Zulude, both of which were located in the west.Шаблон:Sfn Piotr Taracha presumes Ishara was worshiped in all of the listed settlements.Шаблон:Sfn A further Ugaritic text mentioning her is RS 24.261,Шаблон:Sfn which focuses on local Ashtart and her Hurrian counterpart Šauška and combines Ugaritic and Hurrian elements.Шаблон:Sfn It prescribes making an offering to Ishara between these meant for Hutellura and Allani.Шаблон:Sfn

In addition to appearing in Hurrian sources from Ugarit, Ishara was also firmly integrated into the strictly local pantheon.Шаблон:Sfn In the standard Ugaritic list of deities, known from multiple copies both in the local script and in standard syllabic cuneiform, presumed to record the prescribed order of sacrifices,Шаблон:Sfn she appears in the twenty fourth position, after Arsay and before Ashtart.Шаблон:Sfn Another similar text places her before Gaṯaru and after a deity whose name is not preserved.Шаблон:Sfn In RS 24.643, an account of rituals which seemingly took place in the two months following the winter solstice, Шаблон:Sfn enumerates various deities who should receive a sacrificial ram each during them, among them Ishara.Шаблон:Sfn RS 1.001, a ritual taking place over the course of a day and the following night which was the first text discovered during the excavations at the site of Ugarit (Ras Shamra),Шаблон:Sfn prescribes the offering of a cow to her at night, after a similar sacrifice made to Ilu-Bêti,Шаблон:Sfnthe "god of the house", who also precedes her in the list RS 24.246,Шаблон:Sfn the first fourteen lines of which appear to match the order of deities mentioned in RS 1.001.Шаблон:Sfn Dennis Pardee argues that Ilu-Bêti was the tutelary deity of the royal palace and the royal family, and suggests identifying him with Hadad.Шаблон:Sfn

Hittite reception

Файл:Yazilikaya49-51.jpg

Ishara on the Yazılıkaya reliefs, depicted between Allani and Nabarbi.

Ishara was also incorporated into Hittite religion.Шаблон:Sfn Individual traditions pertaining to her were received from Kizzuwatna, Mukiš (Alalakh and its surroundings) and Aštata (Emar and territory controlled by it).Шаблон:Sfn For example, a festival was received from Surun, a city located to the north of Ekalte in Aštata.Шаблон:Sfn The oldest evidence dates to the sixteenth century BCE, and there is no indication that Ishara was worshiped in Anatolia earlier by communities other than the Old Assyrian traders in Kanesh.Шаблон:Sfn

As a guardian of oaths, Ishara appears in a standard enumeration of deities in Hittite treaties.Шаблон:Sfn Military oaths were particularly closely associated with her.Шаблон:Sfn

Ishara is likely among the deities depicted in the Yazılıkaya sanctuary, where she appears between Allani and Nabarbi in a procession of goddesses following Ḫepat whose order mirrors the Hurrian Шаблон:Ill of this goddess.Шаблон:Sfn

Mythology

Mesopotamian myths

The Epic of Gilgamesh and Atrahasis both mention Ishara in passing as a goddess of marriage.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Sfn She is mentioned in a fragment of an Old Babylonian version of the former,Шаблон:Sfn the so-called "Pennsylvania Tablet", which reportedly has been discovered in Larsa.Шаблон:Sfn The reference is also present in the later Standard Babylonian version (tablet II, line 109).Шаблон:Sfn Thorkild Jacobsen argued that it describes Gilgamesh's attempt to marry her, which he considered a reflection of a hieros gamos custom.Шаблон:Sfn However, this interpretation has been criticized by Andrew R. George, who concludes the "bed of Ishara" mentioned in it was presumably a literary term referring to a bed in which a marriage was consummated, and should not be treated as a reference to a sacred marriage rite, especially since the role of Ishara in the pantheon of Uruk is uncertain.Шаблон:Sfn In Atrahasis, she is invoked during preparations for a wedding.Шаблон:Sfn

Hurrian myths

Ishara appears in a myth known from an original Hurrian version and a Hittite translation, known as the Epic of FreeingШаблон:Sfn or Song of Release, discovered in Hattusa in 1983, with further fragments recovered in 1985.Шаблон:Sfn While the Hittite version shows grammatical features typical for the fifteenth and fourteenth centuries BCE, the Middle Hittite period, the Hurrian original is more archaic and it is presumed the composition was inspired by events which originally took place in the seventeenth century, after the kingdom of Yamhad was weakened due to the growth of Hurrian and Hittite influence in the region.Шаблон:Sfn Ishara is introduced in the proemium alongside Allani, with both of them being referred to as "young woman"Шаблон:Sfn (Hurrian: šiduri).Шаблон:Sfn Ishara is also addressed as "wordmaker, famous for her wisdom".Шаблон:Sfn However, she only appears in one more passage.Шаблон:Sfn While the text is bilingual, this section, which describes a meeting between her and Teshub, is only preserved in the Hurrian version, with its Hittite translation now lost.Шаблон:Sfn Teshub apparently threatens to destroy Ebla Шаблон:Sfn because the Eblaites refuse to free the inhabitants of the city Igingalliš.Шаблон:Sfn He discusses this matter with Ishara because she was understood as the main goddess of Ebla.Шаблон:Sfn It is presumed she tries to protect it.Шаблон:Sfn The narrative as a whole is most likely an etiological explanation of the historical destruction of Ebla.Шаблон:Sfn

Ishara also appears in the proemium of the Song of Kumarbi, part of a Hurrian cycle of myths about the eponymous god, as one of the deities invited to listen to narrator's tale.Шаблон:Sfn

References

Шаблон:Reflist

Bibliography

Шаблон:Refbegin

Шаблон:Refend

Шаблон:Authority control

Шаблон:Hurrian mythology

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