Английская Википедия:Ampersand

Содержание

Текст

Текст

Текст

Текст

Текст

Текст

Текст

Текст

Текст

The ampersand, also known as the and sign, is the logogram Шаблон:Char, representing the conjunction "and". It originated as a ligature of the letters et—Latin for "and".

Etymology

Traditionally in English, when spelling aloud, any letter that could also be used as a word in itself ("A", "I", and "O") was referred to by the Latin expression Шаблон:Lang ('by itself'), as in "per se A" or "A per se A". The character &, when used by itself as opposed to more extended forms such as &c., was similarly referred to as "and per se and". This last phrase was routinely slurred to "ampersand", and the term had entered common English usage by 1837.

It has been falsely claimed that André-Marie Ampère used the symbol in his widely read publications and that people began calling the new shape "Ampère's and".

History

Шаблон:Gallery The ampersand can be traced back to the 1st century AD and the old Roman cursive, in which the letters E and T occasionally were written together to form a ligature (Evolution of the ampersand – figure 1). In the later and more flowing New Roman Cursive, ligatures of all kinds were extremely common; figures 2 and 3 from the middle of 4th century are examples of how the et-ligature could look in this script. During the later development of the Latin script leading up to Carolingian minuscule (9th century) the use of ligatures in general diminished. The et-ligature, however, continued to be used and gradually became more stylized and less revealing of its origin (figures 4–6).

The modern italic type ampersand is a kind of "et" ligature that goes back to the cursive scripts developed during the Renaissance. After the advent of printing in Europe in 1455, printers made extensive use of both the italic and Roman ampersands. Since the ampersand's roots go back to Roman times, many languages that use a variation of the Latin alphabet make use of it.

The ampersand often appeared as a character at the end of the Latin alphabet, as for example in Byrhtferð's list of letters from 1011. Similarly, Шаблон:Char was regarded as the 27th letter of the English alphabet, as taught to children in the US and elsewhere. An example may be seen in M. B. Moore's 1863 book The Dixie Primer, for the Little Folks. In her 1859 novel Adam Bede, George Eliot refers to this when she makes Jacob Storey say: "He thought it [Z] had only been put to finish off th' alphabet like; though ampusand would ha' done as well, for what he could see." The popular nursery rhyme Apple Pie ABC finishes with the lines "X, Y, Z, and ampersand, All wished for a piece in hand". Шаблон:Clr

Similar characters

Файл:Pay and Display sign with Tironian et for Irish agus.jpg

Bilingual Irish street sign, with parallel Шаблон:Lang and ampersand.

In Irish and Scottish Gaelic, the character [[Wiktionary:⁊|Шаблон:Char]] is used in place of the ampersand. This character is a survival of Tironian notes, a medieval shorthand system. This character is known as the Tironian Et in English, the Шаблон:Lang in Irish, and the Шаблон:Lang in Scottish Gaelic.

The logical conjunction symbol, Шаблон:Char, is often pronounced "and," but is not related to the ampersand.

Writing the ampersand

In everyday handwriting, the ampersand is sometimes simplified in design as a large lowercase epsilon Шаблон:Char or a reversed numeral Шаблон:Char, superimposed by a vertical line. The ampersand is also sometimes shown as an epsilon with a vertical line above and below it or a dot above and below it.

The plus sign Шаблон:Char (itself based on an et-ligature) is often informally used in place of an ampersand, sometimes with an added loop and resembling Шаблон:Char.Шаблон:Citation needed Other times it is a single stroke with a diagonal line connecting the bottom to the left side. This was a version of shorthand for ampersand, and the stroke economy of this version provided ease of writing for workers while also assuring the character was distinct from other numeric or alphabetic symbols.

Usage

Ampersands are commonly seen in business names formed from a partnership of two or more people, such as Johnson & Johnson, Dolce & Gabbana, Marks & Spencer, and Tiffany & Co., as well as some abbreviations containing the word and, such as AT&T (American Telephone and Telegraph), A&P (supermarkets), P&O (originally "Peninsular and Oriental", shipping and logistics company), R&D (research and development), D&B (drum and bass), D&D (Dungeons & Dragons), R&B (rhythm and blues), B&B (bed and breakfast), and P&L (profit and loss).

In film credits for stories, screenplays, etc., & indicates a closer collaboration than and. The ampersand is used by the Writers Guild of America to denote two writers collaborating on a specific script, rather than one writer rewriting another's work. In screenplays, two authors joined with & collaborated on the script, while two authors joined with and worked on the script at different times and may not have consulted each other at all. In the latter case, they both contributed enough significant material to the screenplay to receive credit but did not work together. As a result, both & and and may appear in the same credit, as appropriate to how the writing proceeded.

In APA style, the ampersand is used when citing sources in text such as (Jones & Jones, 2005). In the list of references, an ampersand precedes the last author's name when there is more than one author. (This does not apply to MLA style, which calls for the "and" to be spelled.)

The phrase Шаблон:Lang ("and the rest"), usually written as etc. can be abbreviated &c. representing the combination et + c(etera).

The ampersand can be used to indicate that the "and" in a listed item is a part of the item's name and not a separator (e.g. "Rock, pop, rhythm & blues and hip hop").

The ampersand may still be used as an abbreviation for "and" in informal writing regardless of how "and" is used.

Computing

Encoding and display

The character in Unicode is Шаблон:Unichar; this is inherited from the same value in ASCII.

Apart from this, Unicode also has the following variants:

• Шаблон:Unichar
• Шаблон:Unichar
• Шаблон:Unichar
• Шаблон:Unichar
• Шаблон:Unichar
• Шаблон:Unichar
• Шаблон:Unichar
• Шаблон:Unichar
• Шаблон:Unichar

The last six of these are carryovers from the Wingdings fonts, and are meant only for backward compatibility with those fonts.

On the QWERTY keyboard layout, the ampersand is Шаблон:Keypress. It is almost always available on keyboard layouts, sometimes on Шаблон:Keypress or Шаблон:Keypress. On the AZERTY keyboard layout, Шаблон:Keypress is an unmodified keystroke, positioned above Шаблон:Keypress.

In URLs, the ampersand must be replaced by %26 when representing a string character to avoid interpretation as a URL syntax character.

Programming languages

Шаблон:More citations needed In the 20th century, following the development of formal logic, the ampersand became a commonly used logical notation for the binary operator or sentential connective AND. This usage was adopted in computing.

Many languages with syntax derived from C, including C++, Perl, and more differentiate between:

• Шаблон:Code for bitwise AND Шаблон:Code is zero, Шаблон:Code is 4.
• Шаблон:Code for short-circuit logical AND Шаблон:Code is true.

In C, C++, and Go, a prefix Шаблон:Code is a unary operator denoting the address in memory of the argument, e.g. Шаблон:Code.

In C++ and PHP, unary prefix Шаблон:Code before a formal parameter of a function denotes pass-by-reference.

In Pascal, the Шаблон:Code as the first character of an identifier prevents the compiler from treating it as a keyword, thus escaping it.

In Fortran, the ampersand forces the compiler to treat two lines as one. This is accomplished by placing an ampersand at the end of the first line and at the beginning of the second line.

In many implementations of ALGOL 60 the ampersand denotes the tens exponent of a real number.Шаблон:Citation needed

In Common Lisp, the ampersand is the prefix for lambda list keywords.

Ampersand is the string concatenation operator in many BASIC dialects, AppleScript, Lingo, HyperTalk, and FileMaker.Шаблон:Citation needed In Ada it applies to all one-dimensional arrays, not just strings.Шаблон:Citation needed

BASIC-PLUS on the DEC PDP-11 uses the ampersand as a short form of the verb Шаблон:Code.Шаблон:Citation needed

Applesoft BASIC used the ampersand as an internal command, not intended to be used for general programming, that invoked a machine language program in the computer's ROM.Шаблон:Citation needed

In some versions of BASIC, unary suffix & denotes a variable is of type long, or 32 bits in length.Шаблон:Citation needed

The ampersand was occasionally used as a prefix to denote a hexadecimal number, such as Шаблон:Code for decimal 255, for instance in BBC BASIC.Шаблон:Citation needed (The modern convention is to use "x" as a prefix to denote hexadecimal, thus Шаблон:Code.) Some other languages, such as the Monitor built into ROM on the Commodore 128, used it to indicate octal instead, a convention that spread throughout the Commodore community and is now used in the VICE emulator.

In MySQL, Шаблон:Code has dual roles. As well as a logical AND, it serves as the bitwise operator of an intersection between elements.

Dyalog APL uses ampersand similarly to Unix shells, spawning a separate green thread upon application of a function.Шаблон:Citation needed

In more recent years, the ampersand has made its way into the Haskell standard library, representing flipped function application: Шаблон:Code means the same thing as Шаблон:Code.Шаблон:Citation needed

Perl uses the ampersand as a sigil to refer to subroutines:

• In Perl 4 and earlier, it was effectively required to call user-defined subroutines
• In Perl 5, it can still be used to modify the way user-defined subroutines are called
• In Raku (formerly known as Perl 6), the ampersand sigil is only used when referring to a subroutine as an object, never when calling it

In MASM 80x86 Assembly Language, Шаблон:Code is the Substitution Operator, which tells the assembler to replace a macro parameter or text macro name with its actual value.

Ampersand is the name of a reactive programming language, which uses relation algebra to specify information systems.

Text markup

In SGML, XML, and HTML, the ampersand is used to introduce an SGML entity, such as Шаблон:Code (for non-breaking space) or Шаблон:Code (for the Greek letter α). The HTML and XML encoding for the ampersand character is the entity Шаблон:Code. This can create a problem known as delimiter collision when converting text into one of these markup languages. For instance, when putting URLs or other material containing ampersands into XML format files such as RSS files the & must be replaced with & or they are considered not well formed, and computers will be unable to read the files correctly. SGML derived the use from IBM Generalized Markup Language, which was one of many IBM-mainframe languages to use the ampersand to signal a text substitution, eventually going back to System/360 macro assembly language.

In the plain TeX markup language, the ampersand is used to mark tabstops. The ampersand itself can be applied in TeX with Шаблон:Code. The Computer Modern fonts replace it with an "E.T." symbol in the Шаблон:Math (text italic) fonts, so it can be entered as Шаблон:Code in running text when using the default (Computer Modern) fonts.

In Microsoft Windows menus, labels, and other captions, the ampersand is used to denote the next letter as a keyboard shortcut (called an "Access key" by Microsoft). For instance setting a button label to Шаблон:Code makes it display as Шаблон:Underlinerint and for Шаблон:Keypress to be a shortcut equivalent to pressing that button. A double ampersand is needed in order to display a real ampersand. This convention originated in the first WIN32 api, and is used in Windows Forms, (but not WPF, which uses underscore Шаблон:Char for this purpose) and is also copied into many other toolkits on multiple operating systems. Sometimes this causes problems similar to other programs that fail to sanitize markup from user input, for instance Navision databases have trouble if this character is in either "Text" or "Code" fields.

Unix shells

Some Unix shells use the ampersand as a metacharacter:

Some Unix shells, like the POSIX standard sh shell, use an ampersand to execute a process in the background and to duplicate file descriptors.

• In Bash, the ampersand can separate words, control the command history, duplicate file descriptors, perform logical operations, control jobs, and participate in regular expressions.

Web standards

The generic URL (Uniform Resource Locator) syntax allows for a query string to be appended to a file name in a web address so that additional information can be passed to a script; the question mark, or query mark, Шаблон:Char, is used to indicate the start of a query string. A query string is usually made up of a number of different name–value pairs, each separated by the ampersand symbol, Шаблон:Char. For example, Шаблон:Code.

See also

• And (disambiguation)
• List of typographical symbols and punctuation marks
• Kai (abbreviation)
• Heta
• Tironian notes

External links

• Шаблон:Cite web
• The Hot Word at Dictionary.com: How ampersand came from a misunderstanding
• "Ask the Editor: Ampersand", video at Merriam-Webster.com (2:01). Retrieved 2013-10-18 Шаблон:Webarchive
• Font of 52 ampersands, designed by Frederic Goudy