Английская Википедия:Classical Tibetan

Материал из Онлайн справочника
Перейти к навигацииПерейти к поиску

Шаблон:Disputed Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Infobox language Classical Tibetan refers to the language of any text written in Tibetic after the Old Tibetan period. Though it extends from the 12th century until the modern day,Шаблон:Sfn it particularly refers to the language of early canonical texts translated from other languages, especially Sanskrit. The phonology implied by Classical Tibetan orthography is very similar to the phonology of Old Tibetan, but the grammar varies greatly depending on period and geographic origin of the author. Such variation is an under-researched topic.Шаблон:Cn

In 816 AD, during the reign of King Sadnalegs, literary Tibetan underwent a thorough reform aimed at standardizing the language and vocabulary of the translations being made from Sanskrit, which was one of the main influences for literary standards in what is now called Classical Tibetan.Шаблон:Sfn

Nouns

Structure of the noun phrase

Nominalizing suffixes — Шаблон:Transl or Шаблон:Transl and Шаблон:Transl — are required by the noun or adjective that is to be singled out;

The plural is denoted, when required, by adding the morpheme Шаблон:Transl; when the collective nature of the plurality is stressed the morpheme Шаблон:Transl is instead used. These two morphemes combine readily (e.g. Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Gloss, and Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Gloss).Шаблон:Sfn

Cases

The classical written language has ten cases.Шаблон:Sfn

Case markers are affixed to entire noun phrases, not to individual words (i.e. Шаблон:Linktext).

Traditional Tibetan grammarians do not distinguish case markers in this manner, but rather distribute these case morphemes (excluding Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang) into the eight cases of Sanskrit.

Pronouns

There are personal, demonstrative, interrogative and reflexive pronouns, as well as an indefinite article, which is plainly related to the numeral for "one."Шаблон:Sfn

Personal pronouns

As an example of the pronominal system of classical Tibetan, the Шаблон:Transl, exhibits the following personal pronouns.Шаблон:Sfn

Person Singular Plural
First person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl ངེད་ Шаблон:Transl
First + Second Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl
Second person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl
Third person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl

Like in French, the plural (Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl) can be used as a polite singular.Шаблон:Sfn

Verbs

Verbs do not inflect for person or number. Morphologically there are up to four separate stem forms, which the Tibetan grammarians, influenced by Sanskrit grammatical terminology, call the "present" (Шаблон:Transl), "past" (Шаблон:Transl), "future" (Шаблон:Transl), and "imperative" (Шаблон:Transl), although the precise semantics of these stems is still controversial. The so-called future stem is not a true future, but conveys the sense of necessity or obligation.

The majority of Tibetan verbs fall into one of two categories, those that express implicitly or explicitly the involvement of an agent, marked in a sentence by the instrumental particle (Шаблон:Transl, etc.) and those that express an action that does not involve an agent. Tibetan grammarians refer to these categories as Шаблон:Transl and Шаблон:Transl respectively. Although these two categories often seem to overlap with the EnglishШаблон:Citation needed grammatical concepts of transitive and intransitive, most modern writers on Tibetan grammar have adopted the terms "voluntary" and "involuntary", based on native Tibetan descriptions.Шаблон:Citation needed Most involuntary verbs lack an imperative stem.

Inflection

Many verbs exhibit stem ablaut among the four stem forms, thus Шаблон:Transl or Шаблон:Transl in the present tends to become Шаблон:Transl in the imperative Шаблон:Transl, Шаблон:Transl, Шаблон:Transl, Шаблон:Transl ('to do'), an Шаблон:Transl in the present changes to Шаблон:Transl in the past and future (Шаблон:Transl, Шаблон:Transl, Шаблон:Transl, Шаблон:Transl 'to take'); in some verbs a present in Шаблон:Transl changes to Шаблон:Transl in the other stems (Шаблон:Transl, Шаблон:Transl, Шаблон:Transl, Шаблон:Transl 'to take'). Additionally, the stems of verbs are also distinguished by the addition of various prefixes and suffixes, thus Шаблон:Transl (present), Шаблон:Transl (past), Шаблон:Transl (future), 'Шаблон:Transl (imperative). Though the final Шаблон:Transl suffix, when used, is quite regular for the past and imperative, the specific prefixes to be used with any given verb are less predictable; while there is a clear pattern of Шаблон:Transl for a past stem and Шаблон:Transl for a future stem, this usage is not consistent.Шаблон:Sfn

Meaning present past future imperative
do Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl
take Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl
take Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl
accomplish Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl

Only a limited number of verbs are capable of four changes; some cannot assume more than three, some two, and many only one. This relative deficiency is made up by the addition of auxiliaries or suffixes both in the classical language and in the modern dialects.Шаблон:Sfn

Negation

Verbs are negated by two prepositional particles: Шаблон:Transl and Шаблон:Transl. Шаблон:Transl is used with present and future stems. The particle Шаблон:Transl is used with the past stem; prohibitions do not employ the imperative stem, rather the present stem is negated with Шаблон:Transl. There is also a negative stative verb Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Gloss, the counterpart to the stative verb Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Gloss.

Honorifics

As with nouns, Tibetan also has a complex system of honorific and polite verbal forms. Thus, many verbs for everyday actions have a completely different form to express the superior status, whether actual or out of courtesy, of the agent of the action, thus Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Gloss, hon. Шаблон:Transl; Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Gloss, hon. Шаблон:Transl. Where a specific honorific verb stem does not exist, the same effect is brought about by compounding a standard verbal stem with an appropriate general honorific stem such as Шаблон:Transl.

See also

Шаблон:Portal

References

Шаблон:Reflist

Further reading

External links

Шаблон:Wikibooks Шаблон:Wikibooks

Шаблон:Tibetan language Шаблон:Tibet related articles

Партнерские ресурсы
Криптовалюты
Магазины
Хостинг
Разное

Источник — http://wikihandbk.com/ruwiki/index.php?title=Английская_Википедия:Classical_Tibetan&oldid=13979371