Английская Википедия:Egyptian language
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:About Шаблон:Infobox language Шаблон:Contains special characters
The Egyptian language or ancient Egyptian (Шаблон:Transliteration)[1][2] is an extinct Afro-Asiatic language that was spoken in ancient Egypt. It is known today from a large corpus of surviving texts which were made accessible to the modern world following the decipherment of the ancient Egyptian scripts in the early 19th century. Egyptian is one of the earliest written languages, first being recorded in the hieroglyphic script in the late 4th millennium BC. It is also the longest-attested human language, with a written record spanning over 4,000 years.[3] Its classical form is known as Middle Egyptian, the vernacular of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt which remained the literary language of Egypt until the Roman period. By the time of classical antiquity the spoken language had evolved into Demotic, and by the Roman era it had diversified into the Coptic dialects. These were eventually supplanted by Arabic after the Muslim conquest of Egypt, although Bohairic Coptic remains in use as the liturgical language of the Coptic Church.[4][5]
Classification
The Egyptian language belongs to the Afroasiatic language family.[6][7] Among the typological features of Egyptian that are typically Afroasiatic are its fusional morphology, nonconcatenative morphology, a series of emphatic consonants, a three-vowel system Шаблон:IPA, nominal feminine suffix *-at, nominal m-, adjectival *-ī and characteristic personal verbal affixes.[6] Of the other Afroasiatic branches, linguists have variously suggested that the Egyptian language shares its greatest affinities with Berber[8] and Semitic[7][9][10] languages, particularly Arabic (which is still spoken in Egypt today) and Hebrew.[7] However, other scholars have argued that the Egyptian language shared closer linguistic ties with north-eastern African regions.[11][12][13]
There are two theories that seek to establish the cognate sets between Egyptian and Afroasiatic, the traditional theory and the neuere Komparatistik, founded by Semiticist Otto Rössler.[14] According to the Шаблон:Lang, in Egyptian, the Proto-Afroasiatic voiced consonants Шаблон:IPA developed into pharyngeal Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA: Egyptian ꜥr.t 'portal', Semitic dalt 'door'. The traditional theory instead disputes the values given to those consonants by the Шаблон:Lang, instead connecting Шаблон:Angbr with Semitic Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA.[15] Both schools agree that Afroasiatic Шаблон:IPA merged with Egyptian Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, and Шаблон:Angbr in the dialect on which the written language was based, but it was preserved in other Egyptian varieties. They also agree that original Шаблон:IPA palatalise to Шаблон:Angbr in some environments and are preserved as Шаблон:Angbr in others.[16][17]
The Egyptian language has many biradical and perhaps monoradical roots, in contrast to the Semitic preference for triradical roots. Egyptian is probably more conservative, and Semitic likely underwent later regularizations converting roots into the triradical pattern.[18]
Although Egyptian is the oldest Afroasiatic language documented in written form, its morphological repertoire is very different from that of the rest of the Afroasiatic languages in general, and Semitic languages in particular. There are multiple possibilities: perhaps Egyptian had already undergone radical changes from Proto-Afroasiatic before it was recorded; or the Afroasiatic family has so far been studied with an excessively Semito-centric approach; or, as G. W. Tsereteli suggests, Afroasiatic is an allogenetic rather than a genetic group of languages.[19]
History
The Egyptian language can be grouped thus:[20][21]
- Earlier Egyptian, Older Egyptian, or Classical Egyptian
- Old Egyptian
- Early Egyptian, Early Old Egyptian, Archaic Old Egyptian, Pre-Old Egyptian, or archaic Egyptian
- standard Old Egyptian
- Middle Egyptian
- Old Egyptian
- Later Egyptian
- Late Egyptian
- Demotic Egyptian
- Coptic
The Egyptian language is conventionally grouped into six major chronological divisions:[22]
- Archaic Egyptian (before 2600 BC), the reconstructed language of the Early Dynastic Period,
- Old Egyptian (Шаблон:Circa – 2000 BC), the language of the Old Kingdom,
- Middle Egyptian (Шаблон:Circa – 1350 BC), the language of the Middle Kingdom to early New Kingdom and continuing on as a literary language into the 4th century,
- Late Egyptian (Шаблон:Circa – 700 BC), Amarna period to Third Intermediate Period,
- Demotic Egyptian (Шаблон:Circa – 400 AD), the vernacular of the Late Period, Ptolemaic and early Roman Egypt,
- Coptic (after Шаблон:Circa), the vernacular at the time of Christianisation, and the liturgical language of Egyptian Christianity.
Old, Middle, and Late Egyptian were all written using both the hieroglyphic and hieratic scripts. Demotic is the name of the script derived from the hieratic beginning in the 7th century BC.
The Coptic alphabet was derived from the Greek alphabet, with adaptations for Egyptian phonology. It was first developed in the Ptolemaic period, and gradually replaced the Demotic script in about the 4th to 5th centuries of the Christian era.
Old Egyptian
The term "Archaic Egyptian" is sometimes reserved for the earliest use of hieroglyphs, from the late fourth through the early third millennia BC. At the earliest stage, around 3300 BC,[23] hieroglyphs were not a fully developed writing system, being at a transitional stage of proto-writing; over the time leading up to the 27th century BC, grammatical features such as nisba formation can be seen to occur.[24][25]
Old Egyptian is dated from the oldest known complete sentence, including a finite verb, which has been found. Discovered in the tomb of Seth-Peribsen (dated Шаблон:Circa), the seal impression reads:
<hiero>d:D n:f</hiero> <hiero>N19:n</hiero> <hiero>G38:f</hiero> <hiero>M23*L2:t*t</hiero> <hiero>O1:F34 s:n</hiero> d(m)ḏ.nШаблон:Wikt-lang Шаблон:Wikt-lang Шаблон:Wikt-lang Шаблон:Wikt-langШаблон:Wikt-lang nsw.t-bj.t(j) Шаблон:Wikt-lang-Шаблон:Wikt-lang.sn(j) unite.Шаблон:Gcl.he[26] land.two for son.his sedge-bee house-heart.their "He has united the Two Lands for his son, Dual King Peribsen."[27]
Extensive texts appear from about 2600 BC.[25] The Pyramid Texts are the largest body of literature written in this phase of the language. One of its distinguishing characteristics is the tripling of ideograms, phonograms, and determinatives to indicate the plural. Overall, it does not differ significantly from Middle Egyptian, the classical stage of the language, though it is based on a different dialect.
In the period of the 3rd dynasty (Шаблон:Circa), many of the principles of hieroglyphic writing were regularized. From that time on, until the script was supplanted by an early version of Coptic (about the third and fourth centuries), the system remained virtually unchanged. Even the number of signs used remained constant at about 700 for more than 2,000 years.[28]
Middle Egyptian
Middle Egyptian was spoken for about 700 years, beginning around 2000 BC, during the Middle Kingdom and the subsequent Second Intermediate Period.[9] As the classical variant of Egyptian, Middle Egyptian is the best-documented variety of the language, and has attracted the most attention by far from Egyptology. Whilst most Middle Egyptian is seen written on monuments by hieroglyphs, it was also written using a cursive variant, and the related hieratic.[29]
Middle Egyptian first became available to modern scholarship with the decipherment of hieroglyphs in the early 19th century. The first grammar of Middle Egyptian was published by Adolf Erman in 1894, surpassed in 1927 by Alan Gardiner's work. Middle Egyptian has been well-understood since then, although certain points of the verbal inflection remained open to revision until the mid-20th century, notably due to the contributions of Hans Jakob Polotsky.[30]
The Middle Egyptian stage is taken to have ended around the 14th century BC, giving rise to Late Egyptian. This transition was taking place in the later period of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt (known as the Amarna Period).Шаблон:Citation needed
Egyptien de tradition
Шаблон:Main Original Old Egyptian and Middle Egyptian texts were still used after the 14th century BCE. And an emulation of predominately Middle Egyptian, but also with characteristics of Old Egyptian, Late Egyptian and Demotic, called “Égyptien de tradition” or “Neo-Middle Egyptian” by scholars, was used as a literary language for new texts since the later New Kingdom in official and religious hieroglyphic and hieratic texts in preference to Late Egyptian or Demotic. Égyptien de tradition as a religious language survived until the Christianisation of Roman Egypt in the 4th century.
Late Egyptian
Late Egyptian was spoken for about 650 years, beginning around 1350 BC, during the New Kingdom of Egypt. Late Egyptian succeeded but did not fully supplant Middle Egyptian as a literary language, and was also the language of the New Kingdom administration.[2][31]
Texts written wholly in Late Egyptian date to the Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt and later. Late Egyptian is represented by a large body of religious and secular literature, comprising such examples as the Story of Wenamun, the love poems of the Chester–Beatty I papyrus, and the Instruction of Any. Instructions became a popular literary genre of the New Kingdom, which took the form of advice on proper behavior. Late Egyptian was also the language of New Kingdom administration.[32][33]
Late Egyptian is not completely distinct from Middle Egyptian, as many "classicisms" appear in historical and literary documents of this phase.[34] However, the difference between Middle and Late Egyptian is greater than the difference between Middle and Old Egyptian. Originally a synthetic language, Egyptian by the Late Egyptian phase had become an analytic language.[35] The relationship between Middle Egyptian and Late Egyptian has been described as being similar to that between Latin and Italian.[36]
- Written Late Egyptian was seemingly a better representative than Middle Egyptian of the spoken language in the New Kingdom and beyond: weak consonants ꜣ, w, j, as well as the feminine ending .t were increasingly dropped, apparently because they stopped being pronounced.
- The demonstrative pronouns pꜣ (masc.), tꜣ (fem.), and nꜣ (pl.) were used as definite articles.
- The old form sḏm.n.f (he heard) of the verb was replaced by sḏm-f which had both prospective (he shall hear) and perfective (he heard) aspects. The past tense was also formed using the auxiliary verb jr (make), as in jr.f saḥa.f (he has accused him).
- Adjectives as attributes of nouns are often replaced by nouns.
The Late Egyptian stage is taken to have ended around the 8th century BC, giving rise to Demotic.
Demotic
Demotic is a later development of the Egyptian language written in the Demotic script, following Late Egyptian and preceding Coptic, the latter of which it shares much with. In the earlier stages of Demotic, such as those texts written in the early Demotic script, it probably represented the spoken idiom of the time. However, as its use became increasingly confined to literary and religious purposes, the written language diverged more and more from the spoken form, leading to significant diglossia between the late Demotic texts and the spoken language of the time, similar to the use of classical Middle Egyptian during the Ptolemaic Period.
Coptic
Шаблон:Main Coptic is the name given to the late Egyptian vernacular when it was written in a Greek-based alphabet, the Coptic alphabet; it flourished from the time of Early Christianity (c. 31/33–324), but Egyptian phrases written in the Greek alphabet first appeared during the Hellenistic period Шаблон:Circa,[37] with the first known Coptic text, still pagan (Old Coptic), from the 1st century AD.
Coptic survived into the medieval period, but by the 16th century was dwindling rapidly due to the persecution of Coptic Christians under the Mamluks. It probably survived in the Egyptian countryside as a spoken language for several centuries after that. Coptic survives as the liturgical language of the Coptic Orthodox Church and the Coptic Catholic Church.
Dialects
Most hieroglyphic Egyptian texts are written in a literary prestige register rather than the vernacular speech variety of their author. As a result, dialectical differences are not apparent in written Egyptian until the adoption of the Coptic alphabet.[38][39] Nevertheless, it is clear that these differences existed before the Coptic period. In one Late Egyptian letter (dated Шаблон:Circa), a scribe jokes that his colleague's writing is incoherent like "the speech of a Delta man with a man of Elephantine."[38][39]
Recently, some evidence of internal dialects has been found in pairs of similar words in Egyptian that, based on similarities with later dialects of Coptic, may be derived from northern and southern dialects of Egyptian.[40] Written Coptic has five major dialects, which differ mainly in graphic conventions, most notably the southern Saidic dialect, the main classical dialect, and the northern Bohairic dialect, currently used in Coptic Church services.[38][39]
Writing systems
Most surviving texts in the Egyptian language are written on stone in hieroglyphs. The native name for Egyptian hieroglyphic writing is Шаблон:Lang ("writing of the gods' words").[41]Шаблон:Citation needed In antiquity, most texts were written on perishable papyrus in hieratic and (later) demotic. There was also a form of cursive hieroglyphs, used for religious documents on papyrus, such as the Book of the Dead of the Twentieth Dynasty; it was simpler to write than the hieroglyphs in stone inscriptions, but it was not as cursive as hieratic and lacked the wide use of ligatures. Additionally, there was a variety of stone-cut hieratic, known as "lapidary hieratic".Шаблон:Citation needed In the language's final stage of development, the Coptic alphabet replaced the older writing system.
Hieroglyphs are employed in two ways in Egyptian texts: as ideograms to represent the idea depicted by the pictures and, more commonly, as phonograms to represent their phonetic value.
As the phonetic realisation of Egyptian cannot be known with certainty, Egyptologists use a system of transliteration to denote each sound that could be represented by a uniliteral hieroglyph.[42]
Egyptian scholar Gamal Mokhtar argued that the inventory of hieroglyphic symbols derived from "fauna and flora used in the signs [which] are essentially African" and in "regards to writing, we have seen that a purely Nilotic, hence African origin not only is not excluded, but probably reflects the reality" although he acknowledged the geographical location of Egypt made it a receptacle for many influences.[43]
Phonology
Шаблон:Further While the consonantal phonology of the Egyptian language may be reconstructed, the exact phonetics is unknown, and there are varying opinions on how to classify the individual phonemes. In addition, because Egyptian is recorded over a full 2,000 years, the Archaic and Late stages being separated by the amount of time that separates Old Latin from Modern Italian, significant phonetic changes must have occurred during that lengthy time frame.[44]
Phonologically, Egyptian contrasted labial, alveolar, palatal, velar, uvular, pharyngeal, and glottal consonants. Egyptian also contrasted voiceless and emphatic consonants, as with other Afroasiatic languages, but exactly how the emphatic consonants were realised is unknown. Early research had assumed that the opposition in stops was one of voicing, but it is now thought to be either one of tenuis and emphatic consonants, as in many Semitic languages, or one of aspirated and ejective consonants, as in many Cushitic languages.[45]
Since vowels were not written until Coptic, reconstructions of the Egyptian vowel system are much more uncertain and rely mainly on evidence from Coptic and records of Egyptian words, especially proper nouns, in other languages/writing systems.[46]
The actual pronunciations reconstructed by such means are used only by a few specialists in the language. For all other purposes, the Egyptological pronunciation is used, but it often bears little resemblance to what is known of how Egyptian was pronounced.
Old Egyptian
Consonants
The following consonants are reconstructed for Archaic (before 2600 BC) and Old Egyptian (2686–2181 BC), with IPA equivalents in square brackets if they differ from the usual transcription scheme:
*Possibly unvoiced ejectives.
Шаблон:IPAslink has no independent representation in the hieroglyphic orthography, and it is frequently written as if it were Шаблон:IPAslink or Шаблон:IPAslink.[47] That is probably because the standard for written Egyptian is based on a dialect in which Шаблон:IPAslink had merged with other sonorants.[16] Also, the rare cases of Шаблон:IPAslink occurring are not represented. The phoneme Шаблон:IPAslink is written as Шаблон:Angbr IPA in the initial position (Шаблон:Angbr IPA = Шаблон:IPA 'father') and immediately after a stressed vowel (Шаблон:Angbr IPA = Шаблон:IPA 'bad') and as Шаблон:Angbr IPA word-medially immediately before a stressed vowel (Шаблон:Angbr = Шаблон:IPA 'you will appear') and are unmarked word-finally (Шаблон:Angbr IPA = Шаблон:IPA 'father').[47]
Middle Egyptian
In Middle Egyptian (2055–1650 BC), a number of consonantal shifts take place. By the beginning of the Middle Kingdom period, Шаблон:IPAslink and Шаблон:IPAslink had merged, and the graphemes Шаблон:Angbr and Шаблон:Angbr are used interchangeably.[48] In addition, Шаблон:IPAslink had become Шаблон:IPAslink word-initially in an unstressed syllable (Шаблон:Angbr IPA Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA "colour") and after a stressed vowel (Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA '[the god] Apis').[49]
Late Egyptian
In Late Egyptian (1069–700 BC), the phonemes d ḏ g gradually merge with their counterparts t ṯ k (Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA > Akkadian transcription ti-ba-an 'dbn-weight'). Also, ṯ ḏ often become Шаблон:IPA, but they are retained in many lexemes; ꜣ becomes Шаблон:IPAslink; and Шаблон:IPA become Шаблон:IPAslink at the end of a stressed syllable and eventually null word-finally: Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA > Akkadian transcription -pi-ta 'bow'.[50]
Demotic
Phonology
The most important source of information about Demotic phonology is Coptic. The consonant inventory of Demotic can be reconstructed on the basis of evidence from the Coptic dialects.[51] Demotic orthography is relatively opaque. The Demotic "alphabetical" signs are mostly inherited from the hieroglyphic script, and due to historical sound changes they do not always map neatly onto Demotic phonemes. However, the Demotic script does feature certain orthographic innovations, such as the use of the sign Шаблон:Transl for /Шаблон:IPAlink/,[52] which allow it to represent sounds that were not present in earlier forms of Egyptian.
The Demotic consonants can be divided into two primary classes: obstruents (stops, affricates and fricatives) and sonorants (approximants, nasals, and semivowels).[53] Voice is not a contrastive feature; all obstruents are voiceless and all sonorants are voiced.[54] Stops may be either aspirated or tenuis (unaspirated),[55] although there is evidence that aspirates merged with their tenuis counterparts in certain environments.[56]
The following table presents the consonants of Demotic Egyptian. The reconstructed value of a phoneme is given in IPA transcription, followed by a transliteration of the corresponding Demotic "alphabetical" sign(s) in angle brackets Шаблон:Code.
Coptic
More changes occur in the 1st millennium BC and the first centuries AD, leading to Coptic (1st or 3rd – c. 19th centuries AD). In Sahidic ẖ ḫ ḥ had merged into Шаблон:Coptic š (most often from ḫ) and Шаблон:Coptic Шаблон:IPAslink (most often ẖ ḥ). Bohairic and Akhmimic are more conservative and have a velar fricative Шаблон:IPAslink (Шаблон:Coptic in Bohairic, Шаблон:Coptic in Akhmimic).[57] Pharyngeal *ꜥ had merged into glottal Шаблон:IPAslink after it had affected the quality of the surrounding vowels.[58] Шаблон:IPAslink is not indicated orthographically unless it follows a stressed vowel; then, it is marked by doubling the vowel letter (except in Bohairic): Akhmimic Шаблон:Coptic Шаблон:IPA, Sahidic and Lycopolitan Шаблон:Coptic šoʔp, Bohairic Шаблон:Coptic šoʔp 'to be' < ḫpr.w *Шаблон:IPA 'has become'.[57][nb 1] The phoneme Шаблон:Coptic Шаблон:IPAslink was probably pronounced as a fricative Шаблон:IPAblink, becoming Шаблон:Coptic Шаблон:IPAslink after a stressed vowel in syllables that had been closed in earlier Egyptian (compare Шаблон:Coptic < Шаблон:IPA 'gold' and Шаблон:Coptic < *Шаблон:IPA 'horn').[57] The phonemes Шаблон:IPA occur only in Greek loanwords, with rare exceptions triggered by a nearby Шаблон:IPA: Шаблон:Coptic < ꜥ.t n.t sbꜣ.w 'school'.[57]
Шаблон:Contains special characters Earlier *d ḏ g q are preserved as ejective t' c' k' kШаблон:' before vowels in Coptic. Although the same graphemes are used for the pulmonic stops (Шаблон:Angbr), the existence of the former may be inferred because the stops Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA are allophonically aspirated Шаблон:IPA before stressed vowels and sonorant consonants.[59] In Bohairic, the allophones are written with the special graphemes Шаблон:Angbr, but other dialects did not mark aspiration: Sahidic Шаблон:Coptic, Bohairic Шаблон:Coptic 'the sun'.[59][nb 2]
Thus, Bohairic does not mark aspiration for reflexes of older *d ḏ g q: Sahidic and Bohairic Шаблон:Coptic Шаблон:IPA 'horn'.[59] Also, the definite article Шаблон:Coptic is unaspirated when the next word begins with a glottal stop: Bohairic Шаблон:Coptic 'the account'.[60]
The consonant system of Coptic is as follows:
*Various orthographic representations; see above.
Vowels
Here is the vowel system reconstructed for earlier Egyptian:
| Front | Back | |
|---|---|---|
| Close | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA |
| Open | Шаблон:IPA | |
Vowels are always short in unstressed syllables (Шаблон:Angbr = Шаблон:IPA 'first') and long in open stressed syllables (Шаблон:Angbr = Шаблон:IPA 'man'), but they can be either short or long in closed stressed syllables (Шаблон:Angbr = Шаблон:IPA 'we', Шаблон:Angbr = Шаблон:IPA 'to stay').[62]
In the Late New Kingdom, after Ramses II, around 1200 BC, Шаблон:IPA changes to Шаблон:IPA (like the Canaanite shift), Шаблон:Angbr '(the god) Horus' Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA (Akkadian transcription: -ḫuru).[50][63] Шаблон:IPA, therefore, changes to Шаблон:IPA: Шаблон:Angbr 'tree' Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA (Akkadian transcription: -sini).[50]
In the Early New Kingdom, short stressed Шаблон:IPA changes to Шаблон:IPA: Шаблон:Angbr "Menes" Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA (Akkadian transcription: ma-né-e).[50] Later, probably 1000–800 BC, a short stressed Шаблон:IPA changes to Шаблон:IPA: Шаблон:Angbr "Tanis" Шаблон:IPA was borrowed into Hebrew as *ṣuʕn but would become transcribed as Шаблон:Angbr during the Neo-Assyrian Empire.[64]
Unstressed vowels, especially after a stress, become Шаблон:IPA: Шаблон:Angbr 'good' Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA (Akkadian transcription -na-a-pa).[64] Шаблон:IPA changes to Шаблон:IPA next to Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA: Шаблон:Angbr 'soldier' Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA (earlier Akkadian transcription: ú-i-ú, later: ú-e-eḫ).[64]
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Close | Шаблон:IPA | ||
| Mid | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA |
| Open | Шаблон:IPA | ||
In Sahidic and Bohairic Coptic, Late Egyptian stressed Шаблон:IPA becomes Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA becomes Шаблон:IPA, but are unchanged in the other dialects: Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA 'brother' > Sahidic and Bohairic Шаблон:Angbr, Akhmimic, Lycopolitan and Fayyumic Шаблон:Angbr; Шаблон:Angbr 'name' Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA > Sahidic and Bohairic Шаблон:Angbr, Akhmimic, Lycopolitan and Fayyumic Шаблон:Angbr.[58] However, in the presence of guttural fricatives, Sahidic and Bohairic preserve Шаблон:IPA, and Fayyumic renders it as Шаблон:Angbr: Шаблон:Angbr 'ten thousand' Шаблон:IPA > Sahidic, Akhmimic and Lycopolitan Шаблон:Angbr, Bohairic Шаблон:Angbr, Fayyumic Шаблон:Angbr. In Akhmimic and Lycopolitan, Шаблон:IPA becomes Шаблон:IPA before etymological Шаблон:IPA: Шаблон:Angbr 'river' Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA > Sahidic Шаблон:Angbr, Bohairic Шаблон:Angbr, Akhmimic Шаблон:Angbr, Fayyumic Шаблон:Angbr. Similarly, the diphthongs Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, which normally have reflexes Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA in Sahidic and are preserved in other dialects, are in Bohairic Шаблон:Angbr (in non-final position) and Шаблон:Angbr respectively: "to me, to them" Sahidic Шаблон:Angbr, Akhmimic and Lycopolitan Шаблон:Angbr, Fayyumic Шаблон:Angbr, Bohairic Шаблон:Angbr. Sahidic and Bohairic preserve Шаблон:IPA before Шаблон:IPA (etymological or from lenited Шаблон:IPA or tonic-syllable coda Шаблон:IPA),: Sahidic and Bohairic Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA 'to you (fem.)' < Шаблон:IPA < Шаблон:IPA. Шаблон:IPA may also have different reflexes before sonorants, near sibilants and in diphthongs.[65]
Old Шаблон:IPA surfaces as Шаблон:IPA after nasals and occasionally other consonants: Шаблон:Angbr 'god' Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Angbr[66] Шаблон:IPA has acquired phonemic status, as is evidenced by minimal pairs like 'to approach' Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA < Шаблон:IPA ẖnn vs. 'inside' Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA < Шаблон:IPA ẖnw.[67] An etymological Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA often surfaces as Шаблон:IPA next to Шаблон:IPA and after etymological pharyngeals: Шаблон:Angbr < Шаблон:IPA 'street' (Semitic loan).[67]
Most Coptic dialects have two phonemic vowels in unstressed position. Unstressed vowels generally became Шаблон:IPA, written as Шаблон:Angbr or null (Шаблон:Angbr in Bohairic and Fayyumic word-finally), but pretonic unstressed /a/ occurs as a reflex of earlier unstressed Шаблон:IPA near an etymological pharyngeal, velar or sonorant ('to become many' Шаблон:Angbr < ꜥšꜣ Шаблон:IPA) or an unstressed Шаблон:IPA. Pretonic [i] is underlyingly Шаблон:IPA: Sahidic 'ibis' Шаблон:Angbr < h(j)bj.w Шаблон:IPA.[67]
Thus, the following is the Sahidic vowel system c. AD 400:
| Stressed | Unstressed | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Front | Back | Central | |
| Close | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | |
| Mid | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA |
| Open | Шаблон:IPA | ||
Phonotactics
Earlier Egyptian has the syllable structure CV(ː)(C) in which V is long in open stressed syllables and short elsewhere.[62] In addition, CVːC or CVCC can occur in word-final, stressed position.[62] However, CVːC occurs only in the infinitive of biconsonantal verbal roots, CVCC only in some plurals.[62][64]
In later Egyptian, stressed CVːC, CVCC, and CV become much more common because of the loss of final dentals and glides.[64]
Stress
Earlier Egyptian stresses one of the last two syllables. According to some scholars, that is a development from a stage in Proto-Egyptian in which the third-last syllable could be stressed, which was lost as open posttonic syllables lost their vowels: Шаблон:IPA > Шаблон:IPA 'transformation'.[68]
Egyptological pronunciation
As a convention, Egyptologists make use of an "Egyptological pronunciation" in English: the consonants are given fixed values, and vowels are inserted according to essentially arbitrary rules. Two of these consonants known as alef and ayin are generally pronounced as the vowel Шаблон:IPA. Yodh is pronounced Шаблон:IPA, w Шаблон:IPA. Between other consonants, Шаблон:IPA is then inserted. Thus, for example, the Egyptian name Ramesses is most accurately transliterated as Шаблон:Wikt-lang ("Ra is the one who bore him") and pronounced as Шаблон:IPA.
In transcription, Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, and Шаблон:Angbr all represent consonants. For example, the name Tutankhamun (1341–1323 BC) was written in Egyptian as Шаблон:Wikt-lang ("living image of Amun"). Experts have assigned generic sounds to these values as a matter of convenience, which is an artificial pronunciation and should not be mistaken for how Egyptian was ever pronounced at any time. So although twt-ꜥnḫ-ı͗mn is pronounced Шаблон:IPAc-en in modern Egyptological pronunciation, in his lifetime, it was likely to be pronounced something like *Шаблон:IPA-sem,[69][70][71][72][73][74] transliterable as təwā́təʾ-ʿā́nəkh-ʾamā́nəʾ.
Morphology
Egyptian is fairly typical for an Afroasiatic language in that at the heart of its vocabulary is most commonly a root of three consonants, but there are sometimes only two consonants in the root: Шаблон:Wikt-lang (Шаблон:IPA-sem, "sun"--the Шаблон:IPA is thought to have been something like a voiced pharyngeal fricative). Larger roots are also common and can have up to five consonants: Шаблон:Wikt-lang ("be upside-down").
Vowels and other consonants are added to the root to derive different meanings, as Arabic, Hebrew, and other Afroasiatic languages still do. However, because vowels and sometimes glides are not written in any Egyptian script except Coptic, it can be difficult to reconstruct the actual forms of words. Thus, orthographic Шаблон:Wikt-lang ("to choose"), for example, can represent the stative (whose endings can be left unexpressed), the imperfective forms or even a verbal noun ("a choosing").
Nouns
Egyptian nouns can be masculine or feminine (the latter is indicated, as with other Afroasiatic languages, by adding a Шаблон:Wikt-lang) and singular or plural (Шаблон:Wikt-lang / Шаблон:Wikt-lang), or dual (Шаблон:Wikt-lang / Шаблон:Wikt-lang).
Articles, both definite and indefinite, do not occur until Late Egyptian but are used widely thereafter.
Pronouns
Egyptian has three different types of personal pronouns: suffix, enclitic (called "dependent" by Egyptologists) and independent pronouns. There are also a number of verbal endings added to the infinitive to form the stative and are regarded by some linguists[75] as a "fourth" set of personal pronouns. They bear close resemblance to their Semitic counterparts. The three main sets of personal pronouns are as follows:
| Suffix | Dependent | Independent | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st sg. | Шаблон:Wikt-lang or .ı͗ | Шаблон:Wikt-lang or wı͗ | Шаблон:Wikt-lang or ı͗nk |
| 2nd sg. m. | Шаблон:Wikt-lang | Шаблон:Wikt-lang | Шаблон:Wikt-lang |
| 2nd sg. f. | Шаблон:Wikt-lang | Шаблон:Wikt-lang | Шаблон:Wikt-lang |
| 3rd sg. m. | Шаблон:Wikt-lang | Шаблон:Wikt-lang | Шаблон:Wikt-lang |
| 3rd sg. f. | Шаблон:Wikt-lang | Шаблон:Wikt-lang | Шаблон:Wikt-lang |
| 1st pl. | Шаблон:Wikt-lang | Шаблон:Wikt-lang | Шаблон:Wikt-lang or ı͗nn |
| 2nd pl. | Шаблон:Wikt-lang | Шаблон:Wikt-lang | Шаблон:Wikt-lang |
| 3rd pl. | Шаблон:Wikt-lang | Шаблон:Wikt-lang | Шаблон:Wikt-lang |
Demonstrative pronouns have separate masculine and feminine singular forms and common plural forms for both genders:
| Mas. | Fem. | Plu. | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Wikt-lang | Шаблон:Wikt-lang | Шаблон:Wikt-lang | this, that, these, those |
| Шаблон:Wikt-lang | Шаблон:Wikt-lang | Шаблон:Wikt-lang | that, those |
| Шаблон:Wikt-lang | Шаблон:Wikt-lang | Шаблон:Wikt-lang | this, that, these, those (archaic) |
| Шаблон:Wikt-lang | Шаблон:Wikt-lang | Шаблон:Wikt-lang | this, that, these, those (colloquial [earlier] & Late Egyptian) |
Finally, are interrogative pronouns. They bear a close resemblance to their Semitic and Berber counterparts:
| Pronoun | Meaning | Dependency |
|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Wikt-lang or mı͗ | who / what | Dependent |
| Шаблон:Wikt-lang | who / what | Independent |
| Шаблон:Wikt-lang | what | Dependent |
| Шаблон:Wikt-lang or ı͗šst | what | Independent |
| Шаблон:Wikt-lang | which | Independent & Dependent |
Verbs
Egyptian verbs have finite and non-finite forms.
Finite verbs convey person, tense/aspect, mood and voice. Each is indicated by a set of affixal morphemes attached to the verb: For example, the basic conjugation is Шаблон:Wikt-lang ("to hear") is sḏm.f ("he hears").
Non-finite verbs occur without a subject and are the infinitive, the participles and the negative infinitive, which Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs calls "negatival complement". There are two main tenses/aspects in Egyptian: past and temporally-unmarked imperfective and aorist forms. The latter are determined from their syntactic context.
Adjectives
Adjectives agree in gender and number with the nouns they modify: Шаблон:Wikt-lang Шаблон:Wikt-lang ("[the] good man") and Шаблон:Wikt-lang Шаблон:Wikt-lang ("[the] good woman").
Attributive adjectives in phrases are after the nouns they modify: Шаблон:Wikt-lang Шаблон:Wikt-lang ("[the] great god").
However, when they are used independently as a predicate in an adjectival phrase, as Шаблон:Wikt-lang Шаблон:Wikt-lang ("[the] god [is] great", lit. "great [is the] god"), adjectives precede the nouns they modify.
Prepositions
Egyptian makes use of prepositions.
| Шаблон:Wikt-lang | "in, as, with, from" |
| Шаблон:Wikt-lang | "to, for" |
| Шаблон:Wikt-lang | "to, at" |
| Шаблон:Wikt-lang or ı͗n | "by" |
| Шаблон:Wikt-lang | "with" |
| Шаблон:Wikt-lang or mı͗ | "like" |
| Шаблон:Wikt-lang | "on, upon" |
| Шаблон:Wikt-lang | "behind, around" |
| Шаблон:Wikt-lang | "under" |
| Шаблон:Wikt-lang | "atop" |
| Шаблон:Wikt-lang | "since" |
Adverbs
Adverbs, in Egyptian, are at the end of a sentence: For example, in Шаблон:Wikt-lang Шаблон:Wikt-lang Шаблон:Wikt-lang ("[the] god went there", lit. "went [the] god there"), ı͗m ("there") is the adverb.
Here are some common Egyptian adverbs:
| Шаблон:Wikt-lang or ı͗m | "there" |
| Шаблон:Wikt-lang | "here" |
| Шаблон:Wikt-lang or ṯnı͗ | "where" |
| Шаблон:Wikt-lang | "when" (lit. "which moment") |
| Шаблон:Wikt-lang or mı͗-ı͗ḫ | "how" (lit. "like-what") |
| Шаблон:Wikt-lang or r-mı͗ | "why" (lit. "for what") |
| Шаблон:Wikt-lang | "before" |
Syntax
Old Egyptian, Classical Egyptian, and Middle Egyptian have verb-subject-object as the basic word order. For example, the equivalent of "he opens the door" would be Шаблон:Wikt-lang Шаблон:Wikt-lang Шаблон:Wikt-lang ("opens he [the] door"). The so-called construct state combines two or more nouns to express the genitive, as in Semitic and Berber languages. However, that changed in the later stages of the language, including Late Egyptian, Demotic and Coptic.
The early stages of Egyptian have no articles, but the later forms use Шаблон:Wikt-lang, Шаблон:Wikt-lang and Шаблон:Wikt-lang.
As with other Afroasiatic languages, Egyptian uses two grammatical genders: masculine and feminine. It also uses three grammatical numbers: singular, dual and plural. However, later Egyptian has a tendency to lose the dual as a productive form.
Legacy
The Egyptian language survived through the Middle Ages and into the early modern period in the form of the Coptic language. Coptic survived past the 16th century only as an isolated vernacular and as a liturgical language for the Coptic Orthodox and Coptic Catholic Churches. Coptic also had an enduring effect on Egyptian Arabic, which replaced Coptic as the main daily language in Egypt; the Coptic substratum in Egyptian Arabic appears in certain aspects of syntax and to a lesser degree in vocabulary and phonology.
In antiquity, Egyptian exerted some influence on Classical Greek, so that a number of Egyptian loanwords into Greek survive into modern usage. Examples include:
- ebony (Egyptian Шаблон:Wikt-lang, via Greek and then Latin)
- ivory (Egyptian Шаблон:Wikt-lang, via Latin)
- natron (Egyptian Шаблон:Wikt-lang, via Greek)
- lily (Egyptian Шаблон:Wikt-lang, Coptic Шаблон:Wikt-lang, via Greek)
- ibis (Egyptian Шаблон:Wikt-lang, via Greek)
- oasis (Egyptian Шаблон:Wikt-lang, via Greek)
- barge (Egyptian Шаблон:Wikt-lang, via Greek))
- possibly cat[76]
- pharaoh (Egyptian Шаблон:Wikt-lang, lit. "great house", via Hebrew and Greek)
The Hebrew Bible also contains some words, terms, and names that are thought by scholars to be Egyptian in origin. An example of this is Zaphnath-Paaneah, the Egyptian name given to Joseph.
The etymological root of "Egypt" is the same as Copts, ultimately from the Late Egyptian name of Memphis, Hikuptah, a continuation of Middle Egyptian Шаблон:Wikt-lang (lit. "temple of the ka (soul) of Ptah").[77]
See also
- Thesaurus Linguae Aegyptiae
- Ancient Egyptian literature
- Coptic language
- Egyptian Arabic
- Egyptian hieroglyphs
- Egyptian numerals
- Hieratic
- Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian
Notes
References
Bibliography
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Anastasios-Phoivos Christidēs, Maria Arapopoulou, Maria Chritē, A History of Ancient Greek: From the Beginnings to Late Antiquity, Cambridge University Press 2007, Шаблон:ISBN
- Martin Haspelmath, Language Typology and Language Universals: An International Handbook, Walter de Gruyter 2001, Шаблон:ISBN
- Kathryn A. Bard, Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt, Routledge 1999, Шаблон:ISBN
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Eric M. Meyers, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East, 1997
- Шаблон:Cite news
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
Literature
Overviews
- Allen, James P., The Ancient Egyptian Language: An Historical Study, Cambridge University Press, 2013. Шаблон:ISBN (hardback), Шаблон:ISBN (paperback).
- Loprieno, Antonio, Ancient Egyptian: A Linguistic Introduction, Cambridge University Press, 1995. Шаблон:ISBN (hardback), Шаблон:ISBN (paperback).
- Peust, Carsten, Egyptian phonology: An Introduction to the Phonology of a Dead Language, Peust & Gutschmidt, 1999. Шаблон:ISBN (PDF online).
- Vergote, Jozef, "Problèmes de la «Nominalbildung» en égyptien", Chronique d'Égypte 51 (1976), pp. 261–285.
- Vycichl, Werner, La Vocalisation de la Langue Égyptienne, IFAO, Cairo, 1990. Шаблон:ISBN.
Grammars
- Allen, James P., Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs, first edition, Cambridge University Press, 1999. Шаблон:ISBN (hardback) Шаблон:ISBN (paperback).
- Borghouts, Joris F., Egyptian: An Introduction to the Writing and Language of the Middle Kingdom, two vols., Peeters, 2010. Шаблон:ISBN (paperback).
- J. Cerny, S. Israelit-Groll, C. Eyre, A Late Egyptian Grammar, 4th, updated edition – Biblical Institute; Rome, 1984
- Collier, Mark, and Manley, Bill, How to Read Egyptian Hieroglyphs: A Step-by-Step Guide to Teach Yourself, British Museum Press (Шаблон:ISBN) and University of California Press (Шаблон:ISBN), both 1998.
- Gardiner, Sir Alan H., Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs, Griffith Institute, Oxford, 3rd ed. 1957. Шаблон:ISBN.
- Hoch, James E., Middle Egyptian Grammar, Benben Publications, Mississauga, 1997. Шаблон:ISBN.
- Selden, Daniel L., Hieroglyphic Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Literature of the Middle Kingdom, University of California Press, 2013. Шаблон:ISBN (hardback).
Dictionaries
- Erman, Adolf and Grapow, Hermann, Das Wörterbuch der ägyptischen Sprache, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH, Berlin, 1992. Шаблон:ISBN (paperback), Шаблон:ISBN (reference vols. 1–5).
- Faulkner, Raymond O., A Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian, Griffith Institute, Oxford, 1962. Шаблон:ISBN (hardback).
- Lesko, Leonard H., A Dictionary of Late Egyptian, 2nd ed., 2 vols., B. C. Scribe Publications, Providence, 2002 et 2004. Шаблон:ISBN (vol.1), Шаблон:ISBN (vol. 2).
- Shennum, David, English-Egyptian Index of Faulkner's Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian, Undena Publications, 1977. Шаблон:ISBN.
- Bonnamy, Yvonne and Sadek, Ashraf-Alexandre, Dictionnaire des hiéroglyphes: Hiéroglyphes-Français, Actes Sud, Arles, 2010. Шаблон:ISBN.
- Vycichl, Werner, Dictionnaire Étymologique de la Langue Copte, Peeters, Leuven, 1984. Шаблон:ISBN.
- Шаблон:Ill, Vocalised Dictionary of Ancient Egyptian (Open Access), Projectis Publishing, London, 2022. Шаблон:ISBN. [Free PDF download: https://www.academia.edu/101048552/Vocalised_Dictionary_of_Ancient_Egyptian_Open_Access_]
Online dictionaries
- The Beinlich Wordlist, an online searchable dictionary of ancient Egyptian words (translations are in German).
- Thesaurus Linguae Aegyptiae, an online service available from October 2004 which is associated with various German Egyptological projects, including the monumental Altägyptisches Wörterbuch Шаблон:Webarchive of the Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften (Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Berlin, Germany).
- Mark Vygus Dictionary 2018, a searchable dictionary of ancient Egyptian words, arranged by glyph.
Important Note: The old grammars and dictionaries of E. A. Wallis Budge have long been considered obsolete by Egyptologists, even though these books are still available for purchase.
More book information is available at Glyphs and Grammars.
External links
Шаблон:Wiktionary Шаблон:WikisourceWiki
- Thesaurus Linguae Aegyptiae: Dictionary of the Egyptian language
- The Egyptian connection: Egyptian and the Semitic languages by Helmut Satzinger
- Ancient Egyptian in the wiki Glossing Ancient Languages (recommendations for the Interlinear Morphemic Glossing of Ancient Egyptian texts)
Шаблон:Ancient Egypt topics Шаблон:Languages of Egypt Шаблон:Portal bar Шаблон:Authority control
- ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег
<ref>; для сносокErmanне указан текст - ↑ 2,0 2,1 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ The language may have survived in isolated pockets in Upper Egypt as late as the 19th century, according to James Edward Quibell, "When did Coptic become extinct?" in Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde, 39 (1901), p. 87. In the village of Pi-Solsel (Az-Zayniyyah, El Zenya or Al Zeniya north of Luxor), passive speakers were recorded as late as the 1930s, and traces of traditional vernacular Coptic reported to exist in other places such as Abydos and Dendera, see Werner Vycichl, Pi-Solsel, ein Dorf mit koptischer Überlieferung in: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo, (MDAIK) vol. 6, 1936, pp. 169–175 (in German).
- ↑ 6,0 6,1 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ 7,0 7,1 7,2 Шаблон:Cite encyclopedia
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 9,0 9,1 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 16,0 16,1 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Compiled and edited by Kathryn A. Bard with the editing assistance of Steven Blage Shubert. Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Richard Mattessich, "Oldest writings, and inventory tags of Egypt" Шаблон:Webarchive, Accounting Historians Journal, 2002, Vol. 29, No. 1, pp. 195–208.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ 25,0 25,1 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Werning, Daniel A. (2008) "Aspect vs. Relative Tense, and the Typological Classification of the Ancient Egyptian sḏm.n⸗f" in Lingua Aegyptia 16, p. 289.
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt citing Jochem Kahl, Markus Bretschneider, Frühägyptisches Wörterbuch, Part 1 (2002), p. 229.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Polotsky, H. J., Études de syntaxe copte, Société d'Archéologie Copte, Cairo (1944); Polotsky, H. J., Egyptian Tenses, Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Vol. 2, No. 5 (1965).
- ↑ Meyers, op. cit., p. 209.
- ↑ Loprieno, op.cit., p.7
- ↑ Meyers, op.cit., p. 209
- ↑ Haspelmath, op.cit., p.1743
- ↑ Bard, op.cit., p.275
- ↑ Christidēs et al. op.cit., p.811
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 38,0 38,1 38,2 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ 39,0 39,1 39,2 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ See Egyptian Phonology, by Carsten Peust, for a review of the history of thinking on the subject; his reconstructions of words are nonstandard.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ 47,0 47,1 47,2 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ 49,0 49,1 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ 50,0 50,1 50,2 50,3 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 57,0 57,1 57,2 57,3 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ 58,0 58,1 58,2 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ 59,0 59,1 59,2 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ 62,0 62,1 62,2 62,3 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ 64,0 64,1 64,2 64,3 64,4 64,5 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ 67,0 67,1 67,2 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
- ↑ Possibly the precursor of Coptic Шаблон:Wikt-lang ("tomcat") suffixed with feminine Шаблон:Wikt-lang, but some authorities dispute this, e.g. John Huehnergard, "Qitta: Arabic Cats", Classical Arabic Humanities in Their Own Terms (2007).
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
Ошибка цитирования Для существующих тегов <ref> группы «nb» не найдено соответствующего тега <references group="nb"/>
- Английская Википедия
- Страницы с неработающими файловыми ссылками
- Ancient Egyptian language
- Languages attested from the 27th century BC
- Languages with own distinct writing systems
- Extinct languages of Africa
- Страницы, где используется шаблон "Навигационная таблица/Телепорт"
- Страницы с телепортом
- Википедия
- Статья из Википедии
- Статья из Английской Википедии
- Страницы с ошибками в примечаниях
