Английская Википедия:French orthography
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:French language Шаблон:IPA notice French orthography encompasses the spelling and punctuation of the French language. It is based on a combination of phonemic and historical principles. The spelling of words is largely based on the pronunciation of Old French c. 1100–1200 AD, and has stayed more or less the same since then, despite enormous changes to the pronunciation of the language in the intervening years. Even in the late 17th century, with the publication of the first French dictionary by the Académie française, there were attempts to reform French orthography.
This has resulted in a complicated relationship between spelling and sound, especially for vowels; a multitude of silent letters; and many homophones, e.g., Шаблон:Wiktfra/Шаблон:Wiktfra/Шаблон:Wiktfra/Шаблон:Wiktfra/Шаблон:Wiktfra/Шаблон:Wiktfra (all pronounced Шаблон:IPA-fr) and Шаблон:Wiktfra/Шаблон:Wiktfra/Шаблон:Wiktfra (all pronounced Шаблон:IPA-fr). This is conspicuous in verbs: Шаблон:Wiktfra (you speak), Шаблон:Wiktfra (I speak / one speaks) and Шаблон:Wiktfra (they speak) all sound like Шаблон:IPA-fr. Later attempts to respell some words in accordance with their Latin etymologies further increased the number of silent letters (e.g., Шаблон:Wiktfro vs. older Шаблон:Wiktfra – compare English "tense", which reflects the original spelling – and Шаблон:Wiktfra vs. older Шаблон:Wiktfro).
Nevertheless, there are rules governing French orthography which allow for a reasonable degree of accuracy when pronouncing French words from their written forms. The reverse operation, producing written forms from pronunciation, is much more ambiguous. The French alphabet uses a number of diacritics, including the circumflex, diaeresis, acute, and grave accents, as well as ligatures. A system of braille has been developed for people who are visually impaired.
Alphabet
Шаблон:Listen The French alphabet is based on the 26 letters of the Latin alphabet, uppercase and lowercase, with five diacritics and two orthographic ligatures.
Letter Name Name (IPA) Diacritics and ligatures A a Шаблон:IPA Àà, Ââ, Ææ B bé Шаблон:IPA C cé Шаблон:IPA Çç D dé Шаблон:IPA E e Шаблон:IPA Éé, Èè, Êê, Ëë F effe Шаблон:IPA G gé Шаблон:IPA H ache Шаблон:IPA I i Шаблон:IPA Îî, Ïï J ji Шаблон:IPA K ka Шаблон:IPA L elle Шаблон:IPA M emme Шаблон:IPA N enne Шаблон:IPA O o Шаблон:IPA Ôô, Œœ P pé Шаблон:IPA Q qu Шаблон:IPA R erre Шаблон:IPA S esse Шаблон:IPA T té Шаблон:IPA U u Шаблон:IPA Ùù, Ûû, Üü V vé Шаблон:IPA W double vé Шаблон:IPA X ixe Шаблон:IPA Y i grec Шаблон:IPA Ÿÿ Z zède Шаблон:IPA
Шаблон:Vr and Шаблон:Vr are rarely used except in loanwords and regional words. Шаблон:IPA is usually written Шаблон:Vr; Шаблон:IPA is usually written Шаблон:Vr anywhere but before Шаблон:Vr, Шаблон:Vr before Шаблон:Vr, and sometimes Шаблон:Vr at the ends of words. However, Шаблон:Vr is common in the metric prefix kilo- (originally from Greek Шаблон:Wiktell khilia "a thousand"), e.g. Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang.
Diacritics
The diacritics used in French orthography are the acute accent (Шаблон:Vr; Шаблон:Lang), the grave accent (Шаблон:Vr; Шаблон:Lang), the circumflex (Шаблон:Vr; Шаблон:Lang), the diaeresis (Шаблон:Vr; Шаблон:Lang), and the cedilla (Шаблон:Vr; Шаблон:Lang). Diacritics have no effect on the primary alphabetical order.
- An acute accent over Шаблон:Vr represents Шаблон:IPA. An Шаблон:Vr in modern French is often used where a combination of Шаблон:Vr and a consonant, usually Шаблон:Vr, would have been used formerly, e.g. Шаблон:Lang < Шаблон:Lang.
- A grave accent over Шаблон:Vr or Шаблон:Vr is primarily used to distinguish homophones: Шаблон:Lang ("to") vs. Шаблон:Lang ("has"); Шаблон:Lang ("or") vs. Шаблон:Lang ("where"; note that Шаблон:Vr is only used in this word). A grave accent over Шаблон:Vr indicates Шаблон:IPA in positions where a plain Шаблон:Vr would be pronounced Шаблон:IPA (schwa). Many verb conjugations contain regular alternations between Шаблон:Vr and Шаблон:Vr; for example, the accent mark in the present tense verb Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA distinguishes the vowel's pronunciation from the schwa in the infinitive, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA.
- A circumflex over Шаблон:Vr indicates Шаблон:IPA, respectively, but the distinction between Шаблон:Vr Шаблон:IPA vs. Шаблон:Vr Шаблон:IPA is being lost in Parisian French, merging them as Шаблон:IPA. In Belgian French, Шаблон:Vr is pronounced Шаблон:IPA. Most often, it indicates the historical deletion of an adjacent letter (usually Шаблон:Vr or a vowel): Шаблон:Lang < Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang < Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang < Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang < Шаблон:Lang (in medieval manuscripts many letters were often written as diacritical marks, e.g. the circumflex for Шаблон:Vr and the tilde for Шаблон:Vr). It has also come to be used to distinguish homophones, e.g. Шаблон:Lang ("of the") vs. Шаблон:Lang (past participle of Шаблон:Lang "to have to do something (pertaining to an act)"); however Шаблон:Lang is in fact written thus because of a dropped Шаблон:Vr: deu (see Circumflex in French). Since the 1990 orthographic changes, the circumflex on Шаблон:Vr and Шаблон:Vr can be dropped unless it distinguishes homophones, e.g. Шаблон:Lang becomes Шаблон:Lang but Шаблон:Lang (sure) does not change to avoid ambiguity with the word Шаблон:Lang (on).
- A diaeresis over Шаблон:Vr indicates a hiatus between the accented vowel and the vowel preceding it, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA. The diaeresis may also indicate a glide/diphthong, as in Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA.
- The combination Шаблон:Vr is pronounced in the regular way if followed by Шаблон:Vr (Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, an exception to this is Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA).
- The combination Шаблон:Vr is either pronounced Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang) or Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:Lang); it represents Шаблон:IPA if it precedes Шаблон:Vr (Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA-fr).
- A diaeresis on Шаблон:Vr only occurs in some proper names and in modern editions of old French texts, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA (commune in Marne, now Шаблон:Lang), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA (alley in the 18th arrondissement of Paris), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA (family name and hotel on the Boulevard Raspail, Paris), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA? (near Joigny), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA? (name of Flemish origin spelt Шаблон:Vr where cursive Шаблон:Vr looked like Шаблон:Vr to French clerks), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA (commune between Paris and Orly airport), Pierre Louÿs Шаблон:IPA (author), Eugène Ysaÿe Шаблон:IPA (violinist/composer), Moÿ-de-l'Aisne Шаблон:IPA (commune in Aisne and a family name), and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA (an insurance company in eastern France).
- The diaeresis on Шаблон:Vr appears in the Biblical proper names Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA?, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA (with Шаблон:Vr for Шаблон:IPA as in words of Latin origin such as Шаблон:Lang, or chemical element names such as Шаблон:Lang), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, as well as French names such as Haüy Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Fix Nevertheless, since the 1990 orthographic changes, the diaeresis in words containing Шаблон:Vr (such as Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA) can be moved onto the Шаблон:Vr: Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, and by analogy may be used in verbs such as Шаблон:Lang. Without a diaeresis, the Шаблон:Vr would be silent (or a schwa in accents which retain one): Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA.
- In addition, words of German origin retain their umlaut (Шаблон:Vr) if applicable but often use French pronunciation, such as Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:IPA, trademark of a pressure washer).
- A cedilla under Шаблон:Vr indicates that it is pronounced Шаблон:IPA rather than Шаблон:IPA. Thus Шаблон:Lang "I throw" (with Шаблон:Vr for Шаблон:IPA before Шаблон:Vr), Шаблон:Lang "I was throwing" (Шаблон:Vr would represent Шаблон:IPA before Шаблон:Vr without the cedilla). The cedilla is only used before Шаблон:Vr, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA. A cedilla is not used before Шаблон:Vr, since they already mark the Шаблон:Vr as Шаблон:IPA, e.g. Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang.
A tilde (Шаблон:Vr) above Шаблон:Vr is occasionally used in French for words and names of Spanish origin that have been incorporated into the language (e.g., Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang). Like the other diacritics, the tilde has no impact on the primary alphabetical order.
Diacritics are often omitted on capital letters, mainly for technical reasons. It is widely believed that they are not required; however both the Académie française and the Office québécois de la langue française reject this usage and confirm that "in French, the accent has full orthographic value",[1] except for acronyms but not for abbreviations (e.g., Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, but Шаблон:Lang).[2] Nevertheless, diacritics are often ignored in word games, including crosswords, Scrabble, and Шаблон:Lang.
Ligatures
The ligatures Шаблон:Vr and Шаблон:Vr are part of French orthography. For collation, these ligatures are treated like the sequences Шаблон:Vr and Шаблон:Vr respectively.
Æ
Шаблон:Vr (Шаблон:Lang-fr, Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang) is rare, appearing only in some words of Latin and Greek origin like Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang (as named dog’s parsley).[3] It generally represents the vowel Шаблон:IPA, like Шаблон:Vr.
The sequence Шаблон:Vr appears in loanwords where both sounds are heard, as in Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang.[4]
Œ
Шаблон:Vr (Шаблон:Lang-fr, Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang) is a mandatory contraction of Шаблон:Vr in certain words. Some of these are native French words, with the pronunciation Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA, e.g. Шаблон:Lang "choir" Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Lang "heart" Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Lang "moods (related to moral)" Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Lang "knot" Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Lang "sister" Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Lang "egg" Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Lang "work (of art)" Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Lang "vow" Шаблон:IPA. It usually appears in the combination Шаблон:Vr; Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA "eye" is an exception. Many of these words were originally written with the digraph Шаблон:Vr; the Шаблон:Vr in the ligature represents a sometimes artificial attempt to imitate the Latin spelling: Шаблон:Lang-la > Old French Шаблон:Lang/Шаблон:Lang > Modern French Шаблон:Lang.
Шаблон:Vr is also used in words of Greek origin, as the Latin rendering of the Greek diphthong Шаблон:Vr, e.g. Шаблон:Lang "coelacanth". These words used to be pronounced with Шаблон:IPA, but in recent years a spelling pronunciation with Шаблон:IPA has taken hold, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA etc. The pronunciation with Шаблон:IPA is often seen to be more correct.
When Шаблон:Vr is found after Шаблон:Vr, the Шаблон:Vr can be pronounced Шаблон:IPA in some cases (Шаблон:Lang), or Шаблон:IPA in others (Шаблон:Lang).
Шаблон:Vr is not used when both letters contribute different sounds. For example, when Шаблон:Vr is part of a prefix (Шаблон:Lang), or when Шаблон:Vr is part of a suffix (Шаблон:Lang), or in the word Шаблон:Lang and its derivatives.[5]
Digraphs and trigraphs
Шаблон:Expand section French digraphs and trigraphs have both historical and phonological origins. In the first case, it is a vestige of the spelling in the word's original language (usually Latin or Greek) maintained in modern French, e.g. the use of Шаблон:Vr in Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Vr in Шаблон:Lang, or Шаблон:Vr in Шаблон:Lang. In the second case, a digraph is due to an archaic pronunciation, such as Шаблон:Vr, Шаблон:Vr, Шаблон:Vr, Шаблон:Vr, and Шаблон:Vr, or is merely a convenient way to expand the twenty-six-letter alphabet to cover all relevant phonemes, as in Шаблон:Vr, Шаблон:Vr, Шаблон:Vr, Шаблон:Vr, Шаблон:Vr, and Шаблон:Vr. Some cases are a mixture of these or are used for purely pragmatic reasons, such as Шаблон:Vr for Шаблон:IPA in Шаблон:Lang ('he ate'), where the Шаблон:Vr serves to indicate a "soft" Шаблон:Vr inherent in the verb's root, similar to the significance of a cedilla to Шаблон:Vr.
Spelling to sound correspondences
Some exceptions apply to the rules governing the pronunciation of word-final consonants. See Liaison (French) for details.
Consonants
| Spelling | Major value (IPA) |
Examples of major value | Minor values (IPA) |
Examples of minor values | Exceptions | Foreign words | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| -bs, -cs (in the plural of words ending in silent Шаблон:Vr or Шаблон:Vr), -ds, -fs (in œufs, bœufs, and plurals of words ending in a silent Шаблон:Vr), ‑gs, -ps, -ts | Ø | Шаблон:Tooltip, Шаблон:Tooltip, Шаблон:Tooltip, Шаблон:Tooltip, Шаблон:Tooltip, Шаблон:Tooltip, Шаблон:Tooltip, Шаблон:Tooltip | |||||
| b, bb | elsewhere | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip, abbé | ||||
| before a voiceless consonant | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip, observer, subtile | |||||
| finally | Ø | plomb, Colomb | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip | |||
| ç | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip, garçon, reçu | |||||
| c | before Шаблон:Vr | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip, loquace, douce, ciel, ceux | Ø (after s) | scene | ||
| initially/medially elsewhere | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip, crasse, cœur, sacré | Шаблон:IPAslink (before æ and œ in scientific terms of Latin and Greek origin) Ø |
cæcum, cœlacanthe bifteck, knickerbockers, knickers (before k) (see also -ct, cqu, -cte |
Шаблон:IPAslink second | ||
| finally | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip, donc, parc | Ø | Шаблон:Tooltip, blanc, caoutchouc | Шаблон:IPAslink zinc | ||
| cc | before Шаблон:Vr | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | Шаблон:Tooltip, accent | Шаблон:IPAslink succion | |||
| elsewhere | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip | |||||
| ch | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip, douche | Шаблон:IPAslink (often in words of Greek origin[6]) | chaotique, chlore, varech | Ø yacht, almanach Шаблон:IPAslink check-list, strech, coach | ||
| -ct | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | Шаблон:Tooltip, correct | Ø | respect, suspect, instinct, succinct | |||
| d, dd | elsewhere | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip, adresse, addition | ||||
| finally | Ø | Шаблон:Tooltip, accord | Шаблон:IPAslink | David, sud | |||
| f, ff | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip, affoler, soif | Ø clef, cerf, nerf | ||||
| g | before Шаблон:Vr | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip, manger | Шаблон:IPAslink gin, adagio, management | |||
| initially/medially elsewhere | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip, glacier | |||||
| finally | Ø | Шаблон:Tooltip, long, sang | Шаблон:IPAslink | erg, zigzag | |||
| gg | before Шаблон:Vr | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | Шаблон:Tooltip | ||||
| elsewhere | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip | |||||
| gn | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip, agneau, gnôle | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ gnose, gnou | ||||
| h | Ø | Шаблон:Tooltip, hiver | Шаблон:IPAslink (intervocalic, to some speakers, but Ø for most speakers) | Sahara | Шаблон:IPAslink ahaner (also Ø or /j/), hit | ||
| j | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip, jeter | Шаблон:IPAslink | jean, jazz | Шаблон:IPAslink fjord Шаблон:IPAslink jota, marijuana | ||
| k | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip, kilomètre, bifteck | |||||
| l, ll | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip, allier, il, royal, matériel | Ø (occasionally finally) | cul, fusil, saoul | Ø fils, aulne, aulx (see also -il) |
||
| m, mm | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip, pomme | Ø automne, condamner | ||||
| n, nn | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip, panne | |||||
| ng | Шаблон:IPAslink Шаблон:Tooltip, camping | ||||||
| p, pp | elsewhere | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip, appel | ||||
| finally | Ø | coup, trop | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip, cep | |||
| ph | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip, photo | |||||
| pt | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:Tooltip, Шаблон:Tooltip, excepter, ptôse, Шаблон:Tooltip | Шаблон:IPAslink | baptême, compter, sept | Шаблон:IPA prompt (also Шаблон:IPA) | ||
| q (see qu) | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip, cinq, piqûre (in new orthography, piqure), Qatar | |||||
| r, rr | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip, barre | Ø monsieur, gars (see also -er) |
||||
| s | initially medially next to a consonant or after a nasal vowel |
Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip, estime, penser, instituer | Шаблон:IPAslink | Alsace, transat, transiter | Ø Шаблон:Tooltip, mesdames, mesdemoiselles, Descartes (also Шаблон:IPAslink), messieurs (not considered double s), messeigneurs (not considered double s), Debusclin (see also -sch) | |
| elsewhere between two vowels | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip, paysage | Шаблон:IPAslink | antisèche, parasol, vraisemblable | |||
| finally | Ø | Шаблон:Tooltip, repas | Шаблон:IPAslink | fils, sens (noun), os (singular), ours | |||
| sc | before Шаблон:Vr | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip | Шаблон:IPAslink fasciste (also Шаблон:IPAslink) | |||
| elsewhere | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | Шаблон:Tooltip | |||||
| sch | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip, haschisch, esche | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | schizoïde, ischion, æschne | |||
| ss | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip, passer | |||||
| -st | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | est (direction), ouest, podcast | Ø | est (verb), Jésus-Christ (also /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/) |
|||
| t, tt | elsewhere | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip, attente | Шаблон:IPAslink | nation (see ti + vowel) | ||
| finally | Ø | Шаблон:Tooltip, raffut | Шаблон:IPAslink | dot, brut, yaourt | |||
| tch | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip, match, Tchad | |||||
| th | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip, thermique, aneth | Ø asthme, bizuth, goth Шаблон:IPAslink thread |
||||
| v | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip, vanne | |||||
| w | Шаблон:IPAslink Шаблон:Tooltip, week-end (in new orthography, weekend), whisky Шаблон:IPAslink wagon, schwa, interviewer (see also aw, ew, ow) | ||||||
| x | initially next to a voiceless consonant phonologically finally |
/Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | Шаблон:Tooltip, expansion, connexe | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | xénophobie, Xavier | Шаблон:IPAslink xhosa, xérès (also /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/) Ø auxquels, auxquelles |
|
| medially elsewhere | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | galaxie, maximum | Шаблон:IPAslink Шаблон:IPAslink /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ |
soixante, Bruxelles deuxième exigence |
|||
| finally | Ø | Шаблон:Tooltip, deux | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | index, pharynx | Шаблон:IPAslink six, dix, coccyx | ||
| xc | before Шаблон:Vr | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | Шаблон:Tooltip | ||||
| elsewhere | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | Шаблон:Tooltip | |||||
| z | elsewhere | Шаблон:IPAslink | Шаблон:Tooltip, gazette | ||||
| finally | Ø | Шаблон:Tooltip | Шаблон:IPAslink gaz, fez, merguez | Шаблон:IPAslink quartz | |||
Vowels
| Spelling | Major value (IPA) |
Examples of major value | Minor values (IPA) |
Examples of minor value | Exceptions | Foreign words | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| a, à | Шаблон:IPAslink | patte, arable, là, déjà | Шаблон:IPAslink | araser, base, condamner | Шаблон:IPAslink yacht (also Шаблон:IPAslink) Шаблон:IPAslink football Шаблон:IPAslink lady | ||
| â | Шаблон:IPAslink | château, pâté | Шаблон:IPAslink | dégât (also Шаблон:IPAslink), parlâmes, liâtes, menât (simple past and imperfect subjunctive verb endings -âmes, -âtes, and -ât) | |||
| aa | Шаблон:IPAslink | graal, Baal, maastrichtois | /Шаблон:IPA link.Шаблон:IPA link/ | aa | |||
| æ | Шаблон:IPAslink | ex-æquo, cæcum | |||||
| ae | Шаблон:IPAslink | reggae | /Шаблон:IPA link/ | groenendael, maelstrom, Portaels | /Шаблон:IPA link.Шаблон:IPA link/ maestro /Шаблон:IPA link.Шаблон:IPA link/ paella |
||
| aë | /Шаблон:IPA link.Шаблон:IPA link/ | Raphaël, Israël | /Шаблон:IPA link/ Staël | ||||
| ai | Шаблон:IPAslink (Шаблон:IPAslink) |
vrai, faite ai, aiguille, baisser, gai, quai |
Шаблон:IPAslink | lançai, mangerai (future and simple past verb forms ending in -ai or -rai) | Шаблон:IPAslink faisan, faisons,[7] (and all other conjugated forms of faire which are spelt fais- and followed by a pronounced vowel) | ||
| aî (in new orthography Шаблон:Vr) | Шаблон:IPAslink | maître, chaîne (in new orthography, maitre, chaine) | |||||
| aï | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPAlinkШаблон:IPA link/ | naïf, haïr | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | aïe, aïeul, haïe, païen | |||
| aie | Шаблон:IPAslink | baie, monnaie | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | paie (also paye) | |||
| ao, aô | elsewhere | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPAlinkШаблон:IPA link/ | aorte, extraordinaire (also Шаблон:IPAslink) | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPAlinkШаблон:IPA link/ | baobab | Шаблон:IPAslink faonne, paonneau Шаблон:IPAslink Saône |
|
| phonologically finally | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPAlinkШаблон:IPA link/ | cacao, chaos | Шаблон:IPAslink curaçao | ||||
| aou, aoû | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPAlinkШаблон:IPA link/ | caoutchouc, aoûtien (in new orthography, aoutien), yaourt | Шаблон:IPAslink | saoul, août (in new orthography, aout) | |||
| au | elsewhere | Шаблон:IPAslink | haut, augure | ||||
| before Шаблон:Vr | Шаблон:IPAslink | dinosaure, Aurélie, Laurent (also Шаблон:IPAslink) | |||||
| ay | elsewhere | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | ayons, essayer (also /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/) | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | mayonnaise, papaye, ayoye | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ pays (also /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/) | |
| finally | Шаблон:IPAslink | Gamay, margay, railway | Шаблон:IPAslink okay | ||||
| -aye | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPAlinkШаблон:IPA link/ | abbaye | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | paye | Шаблон:IPAslink La Haye /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ baye |
||
| e | elsewhere | Шаблон:IPAslink | repeser, genoux | Шаблон:IPAslink revolver (in new orthography, révolver) | |||
| before multiple consonants, Шаблон:Vr, or a final spoken (or silent if Шаблон:Vr) consonant |
Шаблон:IPAslink | est, estival, voyelle, examiner, exécuter, quel, chalet | /Шаблон:IPA link, Шаблон:IPAlink/(before double consonant) Шаблон:IPAslink |
essence, effet, henné recherche, secrète, repli (before Шаблон:Vr+vowel or a consonant (except Шаблон:Vr) followed by Шаблон:Vr) |
Шаблон:IPAslink et |
||
| before a silent consonant other than Шаблон:Vr or cons.+Шаблон:Vr | Шаблон:IPAslink | les, nez, clef, mangez, (and any form of a verb in the second person plural that ends in -ez), assez (see also -er, -es), mesdames, mesdemoiselles (also Шаблон:IPAslink), Descartes (also Шаблон:IPAslink) |
(see also -es) | ||||
| finally or in a position where it can be easily elided |
∅ | caisse, unique, acheter (also Шаблон:IPAslink), franchement | Шаблон:IPAslink (finally) | que, de, je (in monosyllables), quatre, parle, chambre, répondre, hymne, indemne, syntagme (after two or more consonants of which the last is r or l) | Шаблон:IPAslink presque, puisque, quelque (the compound adjective pronouns ending in -que) | ||
| é, ée | Шаблон:IPAslink | clé, échapper, idée | Шаблон:IPAslink (in closed syllables) événement, céderai, vénerie (in new orthography, évènement, cèderai, vènerie) | ||||
| è | Шаблон:IPAslink | relève, zèle | |||||
| ê | phonologically finally or in closed syllables |
Шаблон:IPAslink | tête, crêpe, forêt, prêt | ||||
| in open syllables | /Шаблон:IPA link, Шаблон:IPA link/ | bêtise | |||||
| ea (except after Шаблон:Vr) | Шаблон:IPAslink | dealer, leader, speaker (in new orthography, dealeur, leadeur, speakeur) | |||||
| ee | Шаблон:IPAslink | week-end (in new orthography, weekend), spleen | Шаблон:IPAslink pedigree (also pédigré(e)) | ||||
| eau | Шаблон:IPAslink | eau, oiseaux | |||||
| ei | Шаблон:IPAslink | neige (also Шаблон:IPAslink), reine (also Шаблон:IPAslink), geisha (also /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/) | |||||
| eî | Шаблон:IPAslink | reître (in new orthography, reitre) | |||||
| eoi | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | asseoir (in new orthography, assoir) | |||||
| eu | initially or phonologically finally or before Шаблон:IPAslink |
Шаблон:IPAslink | Europe, heureux, peu, chanteuse | Шаблон:IPAslink eu, eussions, (verb forms of Шаблон:Lang with initial Шаблон:Vr-), gageure (in new orthography, gageüre) | |||
| elsewhere | Шаблон:IPAslink | beurre, jeune | Шаблон:IPAslink | feutre, neutre, pleuvoir | |||
| eû | Шаблон:IPAslink | jeûne | Шаблон:IPAslink eûmes, eût, (and any conjugated forms of avoir spelt with eû-) | ||||
| ey | before vowel | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | gouleyant, volleyer | ||||
| finally | Шаблон:IPAslink | hockey, trolley | |||||
| i | elsewhere | Шаблон:IPAslink | ici, proscrire | Ø business | |||
| before vowel | Шаблон:IPAslink | fief, ionique, rien | Шаблон:IPAslink (in compound words) | antioxydant | |||
| î | Шаблон:IPAslink | gîte, épître (in new orthography, gitre, epitre) | |||||
| ï (initially or between vowels) | Шаблон:IPAslink | ïambe (also iambe), aïeul, païen | Шаблон:IPAslink ouïe | ||||
| -ie | Шаблон:IPAslink | régie, vie | |||||
| o | phonologically finally or before Шаблон:IPAslink |
Шаблон:IPAslink | pro, mot, chose, déposes | Шаблон:IPAslink sosie | |||
| elsewhere | Шаблон:IPAslink | carotte, offre | Шаблон:IPAslink | cyclone, fosse, tome | |||
| ô | Шаблон:IPAslink | tôt, cône | Шаблон:IPAslink hôpital (also Шаблон:IPAslink) | ||||
| œ | Шаблон:IPAslink | œil | Шаблон:IPAslink Шаблон:IPAslink |
œsophage, fœtus œstrogène |
Шаблон:IPAslink lœss | ||
| oe | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPAlinkШаблон:IPA link/ | coefficient | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link, Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ moelle, moellon, moelleux (also moëlle, moëllon, moëlleux) Шаблон:IPAslink foehn |
||||
| oê | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link, Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | poêle | |||||
| oë | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPAlinkШаблон:IPA link/ | Noël | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPAlinkШаблон:IPA link/ canoë, goëmon (also canoé, goémon) /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ foëne, Plancoët /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ Voëvre |
||||
| œu | phonologically finally | Шаблон:IPAslink | nœud, œufs, bœufs, vœu | ||||
| elsewhere | Шаблон:IPAslink | sœur, cœur, œuf, bœuf | |||||
| oi, oie | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | roi, oiseau, foie, quoi (also /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ for these latter words) | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | bois, noix, poids, trois | Шаблон:IPAslink oignon (in new orthography, ognon) /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ séquoia /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPAlinkШаблон:IPA link/ autoimmuniser |
||
| oî | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link, Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | croîs, Benoît | |||||
| oï | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPAlinkШаблон:IPA link/ | coït, astéroïde | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | troïka | |||
| oo | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | coopération, oocyte, zoologie | Шаблон:IPAslink bazooka, cool, football Шаблон:IPAslink alcool, Boskoop, rooibos Шаблон:IPAslink spéculoos, mooré, zoo Шаблон:IPAslink shampooing | ||||
| ou, où | elsewhere | Шаблон:IPAslink | ouvrir, sous, où | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ pseudouridimycine | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ out, knock-out | ||
| before vowel or h+vowel | Шаблон:IPAslink | ouest, couiner, oui, souhait (also /Шаблон:IPA link/) | |||||
| oû (in new orthography Шаблон:Vr) | Шаблон:IPAslink | coût, goût (in new orthography, cout, gout) | |||||
| -oue | Шаблон:IPAslink | roue | |||||
| oy | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | moyen, royaume | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link, Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | Fourcroy | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ oyez (and any conjugated form of ouïr spelt with oy-), goyave, cow-boy (in new orthography cowboy), ayoy /Шаблон:IPA link.Шаблон:IPA link/ Moyse |
||
| u | elsewhere | Шаблон:IPAslink | tu, juge | Шаблон:IPAslink tofu, pudding Шаблон:IPAslink club, puzzle Шаблон:IPAslink business Шаблон:IPAslink rhumerie (see also um) | |||
| before vowel | Шаблон:IPAslink | huit, tuer | Шаблон:IPAslink | pollueur | Шаблон:IPAslink cacahuète (also Шаблон:IPAslink) | ||
| û (in new orthography Шаблон:Vr) | Шаблон:IPAslink | sûr, flûte (in new orthography, flute) | |||||
| ue, uë | elsewhere | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | actuel, ruelle | Шаблон:IPAslink Шаблон:IPAslink Шаблон:IPAslink Шаблон:IPAslink (see below) |
gué guerre que orgueil, cueillir |
||
| finally | Шаблон:IPAslink | aiguë (in new orthography, aigüe), rue | Ø | clique | |||
| üe | finally | Шаблон:IPAslink | aigüe | ||||
| -ui, uï | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | linguistique, équilateral ambiguïté (in new orthography, ambigüité) | /Шаблон:IPA link/ | équilibre | |||
| uy | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | bruyant, ennuyé, fuyons, Guyenne | /Шаблон:IPA link.Шаблон:IPA link/ | gruyère, thuya | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ puy | ||
| y | elsewhere | Шаблон:IPAslink | cyclone, style | ||||
| before vowel | Шаблон:IPAslink | yeux, yole | Шаблон:IPAslink | polyester, Libye | |||
| ÿ | (used only in proper nouns) | Шаблон:IPAslink | L'Haÿ-les-Roses, Freÿr | ||||
Vowels and consonants
| Spelling | Major value (IPA) |
Examples of major value | Minor values (IPA) |
Examples of minor value | Exceptions | Foreign words | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| am | before consonant | Шаблон:IPAslink | ambiance, lampe | Шаблон:IPAslink damné | |||
| finally | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | Vietnam, tam-tam, macadam | Шаблон:IPAslink Adam | ||||
| an, aan | before consonant or finally | Шаблон:IPAslink | France, an, bilan, plan, afrikaans | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ brahman, chaman, dan, gentleman, tennisman, naan | |||
| aen, aën | before consonant or finally | Шаблон:IPAslink | Caen, Saint-Saëns | ||||
| aim, ain | before consonant or finally | Шаблон:IPAslink | faim, saint, bains | ||||
| aon | before consonant or finally | Шаблон:IPAslink | paon, faon | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPAlinkШаблон:IPA link/ | pharaon | ||
| Шаблон:Anchoraw | Шаблон:IPAslink | crawl, squaw, yawl | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ in the 18th century and still traditional French approximation of Laws, the colloquial Scottish form of the economist John Law's name.[9][10] | ||||
| cqu | Шаблон:IPAslink | acquit, acquéreur | |||||
| -cte | finally as feminine form of adjectives ending in silent Шаблон:Vr (see above) | Шаблон:IPAslink | succincte | ||||
| em, en | before consonant or finally elsewhere | Шаблон:IPAslink | embaucher, vent | Шаблон:IPAslink | examen, ben, pensum, pentagone | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ week-end (in new orthography, weekend), lichen /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ indemne, totem |
|
| before consonant or finally after Шаблон:Vr | Шаблон:IPAslink | européen, bien, doyen | Шаблон:IPAslink (before t or soft c) | patient, quotient, science, audience | |||
| eim, ein | before consonant or finally | Шаблон:IPAslink | plein, sein, Reims | ||||
| -ent | 3rd person plural verb ending | Ø | parlent, finissaient | ||||
| -erШаблон:Anchor | Шаблон:IPAslink | aller, transporter, premier | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | hiver, super, éther, fier, mer, enfer, Niger | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ leader (also Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link), speaker | ||
| -esШаблон:Anchor | Ø | Nantes, faites | Шаблон:IPAslink, Шаблон:IPAslink | les, des, ces, es | |||
| eun | before consonant or finally | Шаблон:IPAslink | jeun | ||||
| Шаблон:Anchorew | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPAlink/ | newton, steward (also /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/) | Шаблон:IPAslink chewing-gum | ||||
| ge | before Шаблон:Vr | Шаблон:IPAslink | geai, mangea | ||||
| gu | before Шаблон:Vr | Шаблон:IPAslink | guerre, dingue | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link, Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | arguër (in new orthography, argüer), aiguille, linguistique, ambiguïté (in new orthography, ambigüité) | ||
| -il | after some vowelsШаблон:Ref | Шаблон:IPAslink | ail, conseil | ||||
| not after vowel | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | il, fil | Шаблон:IPAslink | outil, fils, fusil | |||
| -ilh- | after Шаблон:Vr[11] | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | Guilhem | ||||
| after other vowels[11] | /Шаблон:IPA link/ | Meilhac, Devieilhe | /Шаблон:IPA link/ Devieilhe (some families don't use the traditional pronunciation /j/ of ilh) | ||||
| -ill- | after some vowelsШаблон:Ref | Шаблон:IPAslink | paille, nouille | ||||
| not after vowel | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | mille, million, billion, ville, villa, village, tranquille[12] | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | grillage, bille | |||
| im, in, în | before consonant or finally | Шаблон:IPAslink | importer, vin, vînt | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ sprint | |||
| oin, oën | before consonant or finally | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | besoin, point, Samoëns | ||||
| om, on | before consonant or finally | Шаблон:IPAslink | ombre, bon | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ canyon Шаблон:IPAslink monsieur Шаблон:IPAslink automne |
|||
| Шаблон:Anchorow | Шаблон:IPAslink | cow-boy (also [aw]. In new orthography, cowboy), show | Шаблон:IPAslink clown /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPAlinkШаблон:IPA link/ Koweït |
||||
| Шаблон:Anchorqu | Шаблон:IPAslink | quand, pourquoi, loquace | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ |
équilatéral aquarium, loquace, quatuor |
/Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ piqûre (in new orthography, piqure), qu | ||
| Шаблон:Anchorti + vowel | initially or after Шаблон:IPA | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | bastion, gestionnaire, tiens, aquae-sextien | ||||
| elsewhere | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/, /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | fonctionnaire, initiation, Croatie, haïtien | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/, /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | the suffix -tié, all conjugated forms of verbs with a radical ending in -t (augmentions, partiez, etc.) or derived from tenir, and all nouns and past participles derived from such verbs and ending in -ie (sortie, divertie, etc.) |
|||
| Шаблон:Anchorum, un | before consonant or finally | Шаблон:IPAslink | parfum, brun | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | album, maximum | Шаблон:IPAslink nuncupation, punch (in new orthography, ponch), secundo | |
| ym, yn | before consonant or finally | Шаблон:IPAslink | sympa, syndrome | /Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:IPA link/ | gymnase, hymne | ||
- Шаблон:Note These combinations are pronounced Шаблон:IPA after Шаблон:Vr, all but the last of which are pronounced normally and are not influenced by the Шаблон:Vr. For example, in Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Vr is pronounced Шаблон:IPA; in Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Vr is pronounced Шаблон:IPA. Шаблон:AnchorШаблон:Vr, however, which only occurs in such combinations after Шаблон:Vr and Шаблон:Vr, is pronounced Шаблон:IPA as opposed to Шаблон:IPA, e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, etc. These combinations are never pronounced Шаблон:IPA after Шаблон:Vr, except -Шаблон:Vr- (Шаблон:IPA), e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, where the vowel + Шаблон:Vr + Шаблон:Vr sequence is pronounced normally, although as usual, the pronunciation of Шаблон:Vr after Шаблон:Vr and Шаблон:Vr is somewhat unpredictable: Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA but Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, etc.
Words from Greek
The spelling of French words of Greek origin is complicated by a number of digraphs which originated in the Latin transcriptions. The digraphs Шаблон:Vr normally represent Шаблон:IPA, respectively, in Greek loanwords; and the ligatures Шаблон:Vr and Шаблон:Vr in Greek loanwords represent the same vowel as Шаблон:Vr (Шаблон:IPAslink). Further, many words in the international scientific vocabulary were constructed in French from Greek roots and have kept their digraphs (e.g. Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang).
History
Шаблон:Expand section The Oaths of Strasbourg from 842 is the earliest text written in the early form of French called Romance or Gallo-Romance.
Roman
The Celtic Gaulish language of the inhabitants of Gaul disappeared progressively over the course of Roman rule as the Latin language began to replace it. Vulgar Latin, a generally lower register of Classical Latin spoken by the Roman soldiers, merchants and even by patricians in quotidian speech, was adopted by the natives and evolved slowly, taking the forms of different spoken Roman vernaculars according to the region of the empire.
Eventually the different forms of Vulgar Latin in what is now France evolved into three branches in the Gallo-Romance language sub-family, the Шаблон:Lang north of the Loire, the Шаблон:Lang in the south, and the Franco-Provençal languages in part of the east.[13]
Old French
In the 9th century, the Romance vernaculars were already quite far from Latin. For example, to understand the Bible, written in Latin, footnotes were necessary. The languages found in the manuscripts dating from the 9th century to the 13th century form what is known as Old French (Шаблон:Lang). With consolidation of royal power, beginning in the 13th century, the Шаблон:Lang vernacular, the Шаблон:Lang variety then in usage in the Île-de-France (region around Paris), took, little by little, over the other languages and evolved toward Classic French. These languages continued to evolve until Middle French (Шаблон:Lang) emerged, in the 14th century to the 16th century.[13]
Middle French
During the Middle French period (c. 1300–1600), modern spelling practices were largely established. This happened especially during the 16th century, under the influence of printers. The overall trend was towards continuity with Old French spelling, although some changes were made under the influence of changed pronunciation habits; for example, the Old French distinction between the diphthongs Шаблон:Vr and Шаблон:Vr was eliminated in favor of consistent Шаблон:Vr,Шаблон:Efn as both diphthongs had come to be pronounced Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA (depending on the surrounding sounds). However, many other distinctions that had become equally superfluous were maintained, e.g. between Шаблон:Vr and soft Шаблон:Vr or between Шаблон:Vr and Шаблон:Vr. It is likely that etymology was the guiding factor here: the distinctions Шаблон:Vr and Шаблон:Vr reflect corresponding distinctions in the spelling of the underlying Latin words, whereas no such distinction exists in the case of Шаблон:Vr.
This period also saw the development of some explicitly etymological spellings, e.g. Шаблон:Lang ("time"), Шаблон:Lang ("twenty") and Шаблон:Lang ("weight") (note that in many cases, the etymologizing was sloppy or occasionally completely incorrect; Шаблон:Lang reflects Latin Шаблон:Lang, with the Шаблон:Vr in the wrong place, and Шаблон:Lang actually comes from Latin Шаблон:Lang, with no Шаблон:Vr at all; the spelling Шаблон:Lang is due to an incorrect derivation from Latin Шаблон:Lang). The trend towards etymologizing sometimes produced absurd (and generally rejected) spellings such as Шаблон:Lang for normal Шаблон:Lang ("to know"), which attempted to combine Latin Шаблон:Lang ("to be wise", the correct origin of Шаблон:Lang) with Шаблон:Lang ("to know").
Classical French
Modern French spelling was codified in the late 17th century by the Académie française, based largely on previously established spelling conventions. Some reforms have occurred since then, but most have been fairly minor. The most significant changes have been:
- Adoption of Шаблон:Vr and Шаблон:Vr to represent consonants, in place of former Шаблон:Vr and Шаблон:Vr.
- Addition of a circumflex accent to reflect historical vowel length. During the Middle French period, a distinction developed between long and short vowels, with long vowels largely stemming from a lost Шаблон:IPA before a consonant, as in Шаблон:Lang (cf. Spanish Шаблон:Lang), but sometimes from the coalescence of similar vowels, as in Шаблон:Lang from earlier Шаблон:Lang (early Old French Шаблон:Lang < Vulgar Latin Шаблон:Lang, cf. Spanish Шаблон:Lang < Шаблон:Lang). Prior to this, such words continued to be spelled historically (e.g. Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang). Ironically, by the time this convention was adopted in the 19th century, the former distinction between short and long vowels had largely disappeared in all but the most conservative pronunciations, with vowels automatically pronounced long or short depending on the phonological context (see French phonology).
- Use of Шаблон:Vr in place of Шаблон:Vr where pronounced Шаблон:IPA rather than Шаблон:IPA. The most significant effect of this was to change the spelling of all imperfect verbs (formerly spelled -Шаблон:Vr, -Шаблон:Vr, -Шаблон:Vr rather than -Шаблон:Vr, -Шаблон:Vr, -Шаблон:Vr), as well as the name of the language, from Шаблон:Lang to Шаблон:Lang.
Modern French
Шаблон:Main In October 1989, Michel Rocard, then-Prime Minister of France, established the High Council of the French Language (Шаблон:Lang) in Paris. He designated expertsШаблон:Snd among them linguists, representatives of the Académie française and lexicographersШаблон:Snd to propose standardizing several points, a few of those points being:
- The uniting hyphen in all compound numerals
- e.g. Шаблон:Lang
- The plural of compound words, the second element of which always takes the plural s
- e.g. Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang
- The circumflex Шаблон:Vr disappears on Шаблон:Vr and Шаблон:Vr except for when it is needed to differentiate homophones
- e.g. Шаблон:Lang (cost) → Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang (abyss) → Шаблон:Lang but Шаблон:Lang (sure) because of Шаблон:Lang (on)
- The past participle of Шаблон:Lang followed by an infinitive verb is invariable (now works the same way as the verb Шаблон:Lang)
Quickly, the experts set to work. Their conclusions were submitted to Belgian and Québécois linguistic political organizations. They were likewise submitted to the Académie française, which endorsed them unanimously, saying: "Current orthography remains that of usage, and the 'recommendations' of the High Council of the French language only enter into play with words that may be written in a different manner without being considered as incorrect or as faults."Шаблон:Citation needed
The changes were published in the Шаблон:Lang in December 1990. At the time the proposed changes were considered to be suggestions. In 2016, schoolbooks in France began to use the newer recommended spellings, with instruction to teachers that both old and new spellings be deemed correct.[14]
Punctuation
Шаблон:See also In France and Belgium, the exclamation mark, question mark, semicolon, colon, percentage mark, currency symbols, hash, and guillemet all require a non-breaking space before and after the punctuation mark. Outside of France and Belgium, this rule is often ignored. Computer software may aid or hinder the application of this rule, depending on the degree of localisation, as it is marked differently from most other Western punctuation.
Hyphens
The hyphen in French has a particular use in geographic names that is not found in English. Traditionally, the "specific" part of placenames, street names, and organization names are hyphenated (usually namesakes).[15][16] For instance, Шаблон:Lang (Square of the Battle of Stalingrad [[[:Шаблон:Transliteration]]]); and Шаблон:Lang (named after Blaise Pascal). Likewise, Pas-de-Calais is actually a place on land; the real Шаблон:Wikt-lang (“strait”) is Шаблон:Lang.
However, this rule is not uniformly observed in official names, e.g., either Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang, but normally Шаблон:Lang has no hyphens. The names of Montreal Metro stations are consistently hyphenated when suitable, but those of Paris Métro stations mostly ignore this rule. (For more examples, see Trait d'union)
See also
- Elision (French)
- French phonology
- French braille
- French manual alphabet
- Circumflex in French
- French heteronyms, words spelled the same but pronounced differently
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
- Alternate French spelling Шаблон:In lang
- Recording of 3 different voices pronouncing the French alphabet
- French alphabet pronounced by a native speaker (Youtube)
Шаблон:Language orthographies Шаблон:Authority control
- ↑ Académie française, accentuation Шаблон:Webarchive
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ wikt:fr:Catégorie:ae non ligaturé en français
- ↑ See wikt:fr:Catégorie:oe non ligaturé en français
- ↑ See Ch (digraph)#French
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite DNB
- ↑ Etudes romanes dédiées a Gaston Paris, p. 487 to 506, especially p. 501
- ↑ 11,0 11,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 13,0 13,1 Translation of Évolution de la langue française du Ve au XVe siècle. See also Langue romane (French) and Romance languages (English).
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web Summary ranslation: "Hyphenate name in roadways (streets, squares, bridges), towns, Шаблон:Lang". See also "orthotypography".
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web. Summary ranslation: "Multi-word "specifics" are hyphenated.".
