Английская Википедия:High-altitude platform station
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A high-altitude platform station (HAPS, which can also mean high-altitude pseudo-satellite or high-altitude platform systems) also known as atmospheric satellite is a long endurance, high altitude aircraft able to offer observation or communication services similarly to artificial satellites. Mostly unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), they remain aloft through atmospheric lift, either aerodynamic like airplanes, or aerostatic like airships or balloons. High-altitude long endurance (HALE) military drones can fly above 60,000 ft (18,000 m) over 32 hours, while civil HAPS are radio stations at an altitude of 20 to 50 km above waypoints, for weeks.
High-altitude, long endurance flight has been studied since at least 1983, and demonstrator programs since 1994. Hydrogen and solar power have been proposed as alternatives to conventional engines. Above commercial air transport and wind turbulence, at high altitudes, drag as well as lift are reduced. HAPS could be used for weather monitoring, as a radio relay, for oceanography or earth imaging, for border security, maritime patrol and anti-piracy operations, disaster response, or agricultural observation.
While reconnaissance aircraft have been capable of reaching high altitudes since the 1950s, their endurance is limited. Very few HALE aircraft are operational like the Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk. There are many solar powered, lightweight prototypes like the NASA Pathfinder/Helios, or the Airbus Zephyr that can fly 64 days; few are as advanced. Conventional aviation fuels have been used in prototypes since 1970 and can fly for 60 hours like the Boeing Condor. Hydrogen aircraft can fly even longer, a week or longer, like the AeroVironment Global Observer
Stratospheric airships are often presented as a competing technology. However few prototypes have been built and none are operational. Among balloons specifically, the most well known high-endurance project was Google Loon, using helium-filled high-altitude balloons to reach the stratosphere. Loon was ended in 2021.
Definitions
- High-altitude long endurance (HALE)
- High-altitude, long-endurance (HALE) aircraft are non-weaponized military drones capable of flying at Шаблон:Cvt over 32 hours, like the USAF RQ-4 Global Hawk or its variants used for ISR.[1] This is above and longer than Medium-Altitude, Long-Endurance (MALE) aircraft flying between Шаблон:Cvt during 24 hours, more vulnerable to anti-aircraft defense, like the USAF ISR/strike MQ-9 Reaper or its variants.[1]
- High-altitude platform station (HAPS)
- defined by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) as "a station on an object at an altitude of 20 to 50 km and at a specified, nominal, fixed point relative to the Earth" in its ITU Radio Regulations (RR).[2] HAPS can also be the abbreviation for high-altitude pseudo-satellite.
Studies
In 1983, Lockheed produced A Preliminary Study of solar powered aircraft and Associated Power Trains for the NASA, as long endurance flight could be compared to suborbital spacecraft.[3] In 1984 was published the Design of Long Endurance Unmanned Airplanes Incorporating Solar and fuel cell propulsion report.[4] In 1989, the Design and experimental results for a high-altitude, long-endurance airfoil report proposed applications as a radio relay, for weather monitoring or cruise missile targeting.[5]
The NASA ERAST Program (Environmental Research Aircraft and Sensor Technology) was started in September 1994 to study high-altitude UAVs, and was terminated in 2003.[6] In July 1996, the USAF Strikestar 2025 report forecast HALE UAVs maintaining air occupation with 24 hours flights.[7] The Defense Airborne Reconnaissance Office made demonstrations of long-endurance UAV craft.[7] In September 1996, Israel Aircraft Industries detailed the design of a HALE UAV.[8]
In 2002, Preliminary reliability design of a solar-powered high-altitude very long endurance unmanned air vehicle was published. The European Union CAPECON project aimed to develop HALE vehicles, while the Polish Academy of Sciences proposed its PW-114 concept that would fly at Шаблон:Cvt for 40 hours.[9] Luminati Aerospace proposed its Substrata solar-powered aircraft that would fly in formation like migratory geese to reduce the power required for the trailing aircraft by 79%, allowing smaller airframes to remain aloft indefinitely up to a latitude of 50°.[10]
Design
- Power
- Power is required for continuous operation, limiting endurance by the need for refueling. Persistent solar-powered aircraft need to store daylight energy for the night, in electric batteries,[11] or in fuel cells.[12]
- Altitude selection
- Drag is reduced in the tropopause thin air, well above the Шаблон:Cvt high winds and air traffic of the high troposphere between Шаблон:Cvt.[13] Maintaining a position facing variable winds is a challenge.[14] Relatively mild wind and turbulence above the jet stream is found in most locations in the stratosphere between Шаблон:Cvt, although this is variable with the latitude and season.[14] Altitudes above Шаблон:Cvt are also above commercial air transport.[14] Flying in the tropopause at Шаблон:Cvt is above clouds and turbulence with winds below Шаблон:Cvt, and above FAA-regulated Class A airspace ending at Шаблон:Cvt.[11]
- Comparison to satellites
- A lower altitude covers more effectively a small region, implies a lower telecommunications link budget (a 34 dB advantage over a LEO, 66 dB over GEO), a lower power consumption, and a smaller round-trip delay.[15] Satellites are more expensive, take longer to deploy, and cannot be reasonably accessed for maintenance.[15] A satellite in the vacuum of space orbits due to its high speed generating a centrifugal force matching the gravity. Changing a satellite orbit requires expending its extremely limited fuel supply.
Applications
Atmospheric satellites could be used for weather monitoring, as a radio relay, for oceanography or earth imaging like an orbital satellite for a fraction of the cost.[11] Other uses include border security, maritime patrol and anti-piracy operations, disaster response, or agricultural observation.[11] They could bring internet connectivity to the 5 billion people lacking it, either with 11,000 airplane UAVs or with balloons like Google's Project Loon.[16]
- Radiocommunication services
- In Europe, scientists are considering HAPS to deliver high-speed connectivity to users, over Шаблон:Clarify span. HAPS could deliver bandwidth and capacity similar to a broadband wireless access network, like WiMAX, over a coverage area similar to that of a satellite. Military communications can be improved in remote areas like in Afghanistan, where mountainous terrain interferes with communications signals.[17]
- Surveillance and intelligence
- The Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk UAV is used by the US Air Force for surveillance and security. It carries a radar, optical, and infrared imagers; and is able to transmit its data in realtime.[18]
- Real-time monitoring
- An area could be monitored for flood detection, seismic monitoring, remote sensing and disaster management.[19]
- Weather and environmental monitoring
- For environment and weather monitoring, high-altitude balloons can deploy scientific equipment to measure environmental changes or to keep track of weather. In partnership with The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), NASA has started using Global Hawk UAVs to study Earth's atmosphere.[20]
- Rocket launch
- More than 90% of atmospheric matter is below the high-altitude platform, reducing atmospheric drag for starting rockets: "As a rough estimate, a rocket that reaches an altitude of Шаблон:Cvt when launched from the ground will reach Шаблон:Cvt if launched at an altitude of Шаблон:Cvt from a balloon."[21] Mass drivers have been proposed for launching to orbit.[22]Шаблон:Page needed
Airplanes
Reconnaissance aircraft like the late 1950s Lockheed U-2 could fly above Шаблон:Cvt and the 1964 SR-71 above Шаблон:Cvt.[13] The twin-turbofan powered Myasishchev M-55 reached an altitude of 21,360 m (70,080 ft) in 1993, a variant of the M-17 first flown in 1982, which reached 21,830 m (71,620 ft) in 1990.
Operational
- Grob G 520 Egrett
- The manned Grob G 520 first flew on 24 June 1987 and was certified in 1991. Powered by a Honeywell TPE331 turboprop, it is Шаблон:Cvt wide, reached 16,329 m (53,574 ft), and can stay airborne during 13 hours.
- Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk
- The Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk first flew on 28 February 1998 and was put into USAF service in 2001.[23] The 131 ft (40 m) wide, 48 ft (14.5 m) long RQ-4 is powered by a single Rolls-Royce F137 turbofan, weighs up to 32,250 lb (14.6 t) at takeoff, and carries a 3,000 lb (1,360 kg) payload up to 60,000 ft (18,300 m) over more than 34 hours.[24] It can be used as a radio relay and can carry electro-optical, infrared, synthetic aperture radar (SAR), and high and low band SIGINT sensors.[24] A total 42 of them have been in service with the United States Air Force.[25] It is the basis for the US Navy's MQ-4C Triton.
Prototypes
Solar powered
- AeroVironment/NASA Pathfinder
- The HALSOL prototype, a 185 kg (410 lb), 30 m (98.4 ft) wide flying wing propelled by eight electric motors, first flew in June 1983.[26] It joined the NASA ERAST Program in late 1993 as the Pathfinder, and with solar cells covering the entire wing added later, it reached Шаблон:Cvt on September 11, 1995 and then Шаблон:Cvt in 1997.[12] The Pathfinder Plus had four sections of the Pathfinder wing out of five attached to a longer center section, increasing span to Шаблон:Cvt, it flew in 1998 and reached Шаблон:Cvt on August 6 of that year.[12]
- AeroVironment/NASA Centurion/Helios Prototype
- Flying in late 1998, the Centurion had a redesigned high-altitude airfoil and span increased to Шаблон:Cvt, 14 motors, four underwing pods to carry batteries, systems and landing gear.[12] It was modified into the Helios Prototype, with a sixth Шаблон:Cvt wing section for a Шаблон:Cvt span, and a fifth landing gear and systems pod. It first flew in late 1999, solar panels were added in 2000 and it reached Шаблон:Cvt on August 13, 2001.[12] A production aircraft would fly for up to six months.[12] It broke up in flight in 2003.[27]
- Airbus Zephyr
- The Zephyr were originally designed by QinetiQ, a commercial offshoot of the UK Ministry of Defence.[28] The UAVs are powered by solar cells, recharging batteries in daylight to stay aloft at night. The earliest model flew in December 2005.[29] In March 2013, the project was sold to Airbus Defence and Space.[30] The latest Zephyr 8/S model weighs Шаблон:Cvt, has a wingspan of Шаблон:Cvt, and reached Шаблон:Cvt.[31]
- Solar Impulse
- The first Solar Impulse manned demonstrator made its first flight on 3 December 2009, and flew an entire diurnal solar cycle in a July 2010 26-hour flight. The 71.9 m (236 ft) wide, 2.3 tonnes (5,100 lb) Solar Impulse 2 first flew on 2 June 2014, it could reach 12,000 m (39,000 ft) and its longest flight was from Nagoya, Japan to Kalaeloa, Hawaii over 117 h 52 min on 28 June 2015.
- Titan Aerospace Solara
- Founded in 2012 in New Mexico, Titan Aerospace was developing large solar-powered, high-altitude atmospheric satellites similar to the AeroVironment Global Observer or QinetiQ Zephyr.[11] Their wing, over Шаблон:Cvt wide, would be covered with solar cells to provide energy for day flight, stored in electric batteries for use at night.[11] Costing less than $2 million, they could carry a Шаблон:Cvt payload for up to five years, limited by battery deterioration.[11] In 2013, Titan was flying two fifth-scale test models and aimed to flight test a full-sized prototype by 2014.[11] In March 2014, Facebook was interested in the company, led at the time by Eclipse Aviation founder Vern Raburn, for $60 million.[16] Google bought Titan Aerospace in April 2014,[32] managed to fly a prototype in May 2015 but it crashed within minutes and Titan Aerospace was shut down by early 2017.[33]
- KARI EAV
- The Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI) began developing its Electrical Aerial Vehicle (EAV) in 2010, after subscale demonstrators, its latest Шаблон:Cvt wide EAV-3 weighs Шаблон:Cvt and is designed to fly for months; it flew up to Шаблон:Cvt in August 2015, during 53 hours and up to Шаблон:Cvt in August 2020.[34]
- Astigan A3
- UK mapping agency Ordnance Survey (OS), a subsidiary of the Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy, is developing the A3, a 38 m (125 ft) wingspan, 149 kg (330 lb) twin-boom solar-powered HAPS designed to stay aloft at Шаблон:Cvt for 90 days carrying a Шаблон:Cvt payload.[35] OS owns 51% of UK company Astigan, led by Brian Jones, developing the A3 since 2014 with scale model test flights in 2015 and full-scale low-altitude flights in 2016.[35] High-altitude flights should begin in 2019, to complete tests in 2020 with a commercial introduction as for environmental monitoring, mapping, communications and security.[35] In March 2021, the project was ended as no strategic partner was found.[36]
- Facebook Aquila
- The Facebook Aquila UAV was a carbon fiber, solar-powered flying wing UAV spanning Шаблон:Cvt and weighing Шаблон:Cvt, designed to stay aloft at FL650 for 90 days.[27] It was designed and manufactured by UK company Ascenta for Facebook, to provide internet connectivity.[37] UAVs would use Laser communication between them and to ground stations.[38] On June 28, 2016, it took its first flight, during ninety minutes and reaching Шаблон:Cvt, but a twenty-foot section of the righthand wing broke off during final approach.[39][40] It made another low-altitude test flights in 2017.[27] On June 27, 2018, Facebook announced it will halt the project and plan to have other companies build the drones.[41]
- China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation
- China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation flew a Шаблон:Cvt-span solar-powered UAV to FL650 in a 15 hours test flight in July 2017.[27]
- Lavochkin LA-252
- Russia's Lavochkin design bureau is flight-testing the LA-252, an Шаблон:Cvt-span, Шаблон:Cvt solar-powered UAV designed to stay aloft 100 days in the stratosphere.[27]
- Mira Aerospace ApusDuo HAPS[42]
- A joint venture between Abu Dhabi-based Bayanat AI and American UAV manufacturer UAVOS, Mira Aerospace's ApusDuo HAPS has completed over 100 test flights across 3 continents, building off technologies first developed in 2014.[43] With a wingspan of Шаблон:Cvt, the unmanned ApusDuo 14 aircraft utilizes a flexible tandem wing design with high-efficiency solar cells to fly continuously for months at altitudes up to Шаблон:Cvt, carrying payloads up to Шаблон:Cvt. During a test flight in Rwanda in October 2023, Mira Aerospace became the first company to successfully deliver 5G connectivity from a fixed-wing HAPS autonomous aircraft in the stratosphere.[44]
- AeroVironment HAPSMobile
- AeroVironment will design and development solar-powered UAV prototypes for $65 million for HAPSMobile, a joint venture 95% funded and owned by Japanese telco SoftBank.[27] Resembling the 1999 Helios, the Шаблон:Cvt span flying wing with 10 electric-driven propellers would provide 4G LTE and 5G direct to devices over a 200 km (125 mi) diameter area[45] On 21–22 September 2020, the HAPSMobile Hawk30 (rebranded as Sunglider) flew 20 hours and reached an altitude of Шаблон:Cvt, testing the long-distance LTE communications developed with Loon for standard LTE smartphones and wireless broadband communications.[46]
- BAE Systems PHASA-35
- Designed by Prismatic Ltd., now BAE Systems, the 35 m (115 ft)-wingspan BAE Systems PHASA-35 made its maiden flight in February 2020 from the Woomera Test Range in South Australia; it should fly its Шаблон:Cvt payload at around 70,000 ft for days or weeks.[47]
- Swift Engineering SULE
- The Swift Engineering's Swift Ultra Long Endurance SULE completed its maiden flight partnership with NASA's Ames Research Center in July 2020.[48] Designed to operate at Шаблон:Cvt, the persistent Шаблон:Cvt UAV weighs less than Шаблон:Cvt and can carry up to Шаблон:Cvt payloads.[48]
- Aurora Odysseus
- Aurora Flight Sciences announced its Odysseus in November 2018.[49] The 74.1m (243ft) wide carbon fibre aircraft weigh less than Шаблон:Cvt and can carry a 25kg (55lb) payload.[50] It was designed to stay above Шаблон:Cvt up to three months at latitudes up to 20°.[51] Its first flight was indefinitely delayed by July 2019.[49]
HAL CATS Infinity
CATS Infinity being developed by HAL, NAL and NewSpace Research. Its scaled down model underwent first flight in 2022. In February 2024, a test flight of the scaled down prototype weighing 23 kg was tested with a wingspan of 12 m at an altitude of 3 km was carried out on Chitradurga Aeronautical Test Range with a duration of eight and a half hours. Officials stated that the development is now expected for completion in 2027. In the next test, expected to happen in March 2024, the duration shall be increased to 24 hours.[52]
| Model | First flight | Span | Weight | Payload | Altitude | Endurance | Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| AeroVironment Pathfinder | 1993-T4 | 98.4 ft (29.5 m) | 560 lb (252 kg) | 100 lb (45 kg) | Шаблон:Cvt | 12 hours | |
| AeroVironment Pathfinder plus | 1998 | 121 ft (36.3 m) | 700 lb (315 kg) | 150 lb (67,5 kg) | Шаблон:Cvt | ||
| AeroVironment Helios | 1999-09-08 | Шаблон:Cvt | 2,048 lb (929 kg) | 726 lb (329 kg) | Шаблон:Cvt | goal: >24 hours | 2003 crash |
| Airbus Zephyr | 2005-12 | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt | 64 days | 2024 planned intro. |
| Titan Aerospace Solara | 2015-05-01 | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt | 4 min | 2017 shut down | |
| KARI EAV-3 | 2015-08 | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt | 53 hours | ||
| UK OS Astigan A3 | 2016 | 125 ft (38 m) | 330 lb (149 kg) | Шаблон:Cvt | goal: Шаблон:Cvt | goal: 90 days | 2021 project end |
| Facebook Aquila | 2016-06-28 | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt | 90 min | 2018 project halt | |
| CASTC | 2017-07 | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt | 15 hours | |||
| Lavochkin LA-252 | 2017-T4 | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt | goal: stratosphere | goal: 100 days | ||
| Mira Aerospace ApusDuo 14 | 2018-10 | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt | 62,000 ft (19 km) | goal: year-round | |
| AeroVironment HAPSMobile | 2019-09-11 | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt | 20 hours | |||
| BAE Systems PHASA-35 | 2020-02 | 115 ft (35 m) | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt | goal: 70,000 ft | 72 hours | |
| Swift Engineering SULE | 2020-07 | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt | goal: Шаблон:Cvt | ||
| HAL CATS Infinity | 2022-10-19 | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt | goal: Шаблон:Cvt | goal: 3 months | Prototype testing, 2027-28 intro |
Hydrocarbon fueled
- USAF Compass Dwell and Compass Cope
- The USAF Compass Dwell UAV program saw the flight of the LTV XQM-93 in February 1970, based on a turboprop-powered Schweizer SGS 2-32 sailplane and designed to fly 24 hours and to reach 50,000 ft (15,240 m); and the Martin Marietta Model 845 in April 1972, based on a piston engine-powered Schweizer SGS 1-34 sailplane, designed to reach 40,000 feet (12,000 m) and capable to fly 28 hours. The following Compass Cope program saw the Boeing YQM-94 B-Gull first flight on 28 July 1973: powered by a General Electric J97 turbojet, it was designed to fly 30 hours up to 70,000 ft (21,340 m), and managed to fly during 17.4 hours and up to 55,000 feet (16,800 m); the competing Ryan YQM-98 R-Tern was powered by a Garrett ATF3 turbofan, first flew on 17 August 1974 and was designed to fly during 30 hours.
- Boeing Condor
- The Boeing Condor first flew on October 9, 1988, it reached 67,028 ft (20,430 m) and stayed aloft for nearly 60 hours; powered by two Шаблон:Cvt piston engines, the Шаблон:Cvt wide UAV had a Шаблон:Cvt gross weight and was designed to reach 73,000 ft (22,250 m) and to fly for more than a week.[53]
- Aurora Perseus and Theseus
- Built by Aurora Flight Sciences for what would become the NASA ERAST Program, the Perseus Proof-Of-Concept UAV first flew in November 1991 followed by Perseus A on 21 December 1993, which reached over Шаблон:Cvt. Designed to fly at 62,000 ft (18.9 km) and up to 24 hours, Perseus B first flew on 7 October 1994 and reached Шаблон:Cvt on June 27, 1998. Its pusher propeller is powered by a Rotax 914 piston engine boosted by a three-stage turbocharger flat-rated to Шаблон:Cvt to Шаблон:Cvt. It has a Шаблон:Cvt maximum weight, is able to carry a Шаблон:Cvt payload and its Шаблон:Cvt wing has a high 26:1 aspect ratio.[54] A larger follow-on powered by two Rotax 912 piston engines, the Theseus first flew on May 24, 1996. Designed to fly during 50 hours up to 65,000 ft (20,000 m), the 5,500 (2.5 t) maximum weight UAV was 140 ft (42.7 m) wide and could carry a 340 kg (750 lb) payload.[6]
- Grob Strato 2C
- Designed to fly at 24,000 m (78,700 ft) and for up to 48 hours, the manned Grob Strato 2C first flew on 31 March 1995 and reached 18,552 m (60,897 ft). The 56.5 m (185 ft) wide aircraft was powered by two 300 kW (400 hp) piston engines turbocharged by a PW127 turboprop as the gas generator.
- General Atomics ALTUS
- Part of the NASA ERAST Program, the high-altitude UAV General Atomics ALTUS I & II were civil variants of the Gnat 750 (which also spawned the USAF Predator A) which had a 48 hours endurance, with a longer wingspan at Шаблон:Cvt. Powered by a Шаблон:Cvt turbocharged Rotax 912 piston engine, The Шаблон:Cvt MTOW testbed could carry up to Шаблон:Cvt of scientific instruments. The Altus II first flew on May 1, 1996, had an endurance over 26 hours, and reached a maximum density altitude of Шаблон:Cvt on March 5, 1999. They led to the larger, turboprop-powered General Atomics Altair.[55]
- Scaled Composites Proteus
- The manned Scaled Composites Proteus operates at altitudes of 19.8 km (65,000 ft), while carrying a Шаблон:Cvt payload.[56] Powered by two Williams FJ44 turbofans, it had tandem wings with a 17 m (55 ft) front wing and a wider 24 m (78 ft) wide back wing for a maximum takeoff weight of 6.6 t (14,500 lb), could cruise at Шаблон:Cvt and stay 22 hours at Шаблон:Cvt of its base.[6]
- Virgin Atlantic GlobalFlyer
- The manned GlobalFlyer, built by Scaled Composites, was designed to fly around the world. Powered by a single Williams FJ44, the 114 ft (35 m) wide aircraft can weigh up to 22,100 lb (10 t). Having a 50,700 ft (15,450 m) ceiling, it flew for 76 hours and 45 minutes in February 2006.
- Aurora Flight Sciences Orion
- The initial Boeing/Aurora Flight Sciences Orion platform would cruise at Шаблон:Cvt for 100 hours, powered by liquid hydrogen feeding piston engines; its takeoff weight of 7,000 lbs (3.2 tons) allowing 400 lbs (180 kg) payloads.[13] It evolved into a twin turbo-diesel-powered MALE UAV burning jet fuel with an increased gross weight to Шаблон:Cvt, designed to fly at Шаблон:Cvt during 120 hours (five days) with a 1,000lb payload, or a week with a smaller one; it made its first flight in August 2013 and flew during 80 hours in December 2015, landing with enough fuel for 37 hours more.[57]
- Shenyang Aircraft Corporation Divine Eagle
- The Divine Eagle, produced by Shenyang Aircraft Corporation, is a large turbofan-powered UAV developed since 2012 and possibly in service by 2018.[58] The twin boom, twin tail aircraft has a canard wing and wind tunnel test were up to a ceiling of Шаблон:Cvt and Mach 0.8.[59]
Hydrogen fueled
- AeroVironment Global Observer
- Fueled by liquid hydrogen and designed to fly at up to Шаблон:Cvt for up to 7 days, the AeroVironment Global Observer first flew on 5 August 2010.[60] After a crash in April 2011, the Pentagon shelved the project.[61]
- Boeing Phantom Eye
- An evolution of the Boeing Condor developed by Boeing Phantom Works, the Boeing Phantom Eye first flew in June 2012.[62] Powered by two Шаблон:Cvt turbocharged Ford 2.3 liter piston engines running on liquid hydrogen, the 150 ft (46 m) wide UAV has a gross takeoff weight of 9,800 lbs (4.4 t) and can carry a Шаблон:Cvt payload.[62] It cruises at Шаблон:Cvt, can reach 65,000 ft (19,800 m) and have a four days endurance.[62] A full size variant is designed to carry a Шаблон:Cvt payload during ten days.[62] In August 2016, the Phantom Eye demonstrator was transferred to the Air Force Flight Test Museum.[63]
- Stratospheric Platforms
- UK Stratospheric Platforms, created in 2014, went public on 19 October 2020; after flight trials of a 4G/5G relay on a Grob G 520 at Шаблон:Cvt, the start-up is developing a hydrogen-fuel cell-powered HAPS UAV built by Scaled Composites, with a wingspan of Шаблон:Cvt, that would fly at Шаблон:Cvt for nine-days with a payload of Шаблон:Cvt.[64]
Airships
Unmanned Stratospheric airships are designed to operate at very high 60,000 to 75,000 feet (18.3 to 22.9 km) altitudes during weeks, months or years.[65] Subjected to ultraviolet damage, ozone corrosion and challenging station keeping, they can be solar-powered with energy storage for the night.[65]
The first stratospheric powered airship flight took place in 1969, reaching Шаблон:Convert for 2 hours with a Шаблон:Convert payload.[66] By August 2002, US company Worldwide Aeros was building a stratospheric demonstrator for the Korea Aerospace Research Institute, as a part the South Korean HAA development program.[67] By April 2004, stratospheric airships were being developed in USA, UK, Canada, Korea and Japan.[68] In May 2004, the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency shown its test airship in Taiki, Hokkaido, a part of its Stratosphere Platform Project.[69]
- SwRI HiSentinel
- On December 4, 2005, a team led by Southwest Research Institute (SwRI), sponsored by the Army Space and Missile Defense Command (ASMDC), successfully demonstrated powered flight of the HiSentinel stratospheric airship at an altitude of Шаблон:Convert.[70]
- Integrated Sensor Is Structure
- The USAF Integrated Sensor Is Structure (ISIS) airship would have stayed for up to ten years at Шаблон:Cvt, providing a persistent early warning against cruise missiles at up to Шаблон:Cvt or enemy combatants at up to Шаблон:Cvt.[13]
- Lockheed-Martin HAA
- The United States Department of Defense Missile Defense Agency contracted Lockheed Martin to build an unmanned High-Altitude Airship (HAA) for its Ballistic Missile Defense System.[71] In January 2006, Lockheed won a $149M Contract to build it and demonstrate its technical feasibility and military utility.[72] It would operate above Шаблон:Cvt in a quasi-geostationary position to deliver persistent orbital station keeping as a surveillance aircraft platform, telecommunications relay, or a weather observer. Launch was originally proposed in 2008, the production aircraft would be Шаблон:Cvt long and Шаблон:Cvt in diameter. Powered by solar cells, it would stay in the air for up to one month and was intended to survey a Шаблон:Cvt diameter of land.
- Lockheed-Martin HALE-D
- On July 27, 2011, the "High Altitude Long Endurance-Demonstrator" (HALE-D) subscale demonstrator was launched on a test flight.[73] HALE-D had a Шаблон:Cvt volume, was Шаблон:Cvt long and Шаблон:Cvt wide, had Шаблон:Cvt solar cells charging 40 kWh Li-ion batteries and Шаблон:Cvt electric motors to cruise at Шаблон:Cvt TAS at Шаблон:Cvt with a Шаблон:Cvt payload during 15 days.[74] At Шаблон:Cvt a problem with the helium levels prevented it and the flight was terminated.[75] It descended and crashed in a Pittsburgh area forest.[76] Two days after, it was destroyed by a fire before its recovery.[77]
- Lindstrand HALE airship
- Lindstrand Technologies designed a Helium-filled non-rigid airship covered with solar cells. The Шаблон:Cvt aircraft could carry a Шаблон:Cvt payload during 3 to 5 years as helium loss would be minimal at high altitudes. For energy storage, a 180kW electrolyser would fill H2 and O2 tanks, to be converted back to water by a 150kW fuel cell. A Шаблон:Cvt motor would allow a Шаблон:Cvt maximum speed.[78]
- Thales Alenia Stratobus
- Thales Alenia Space develops the Stratobus unmanned, solar-powered stratospheric airship, Шаблон:Cvt long and weighting Шаблон:Cvt including a Шаблон:Cvt payload, it is designed for a five-year mission with annual servicing and a prototype was planned for late 2020.[27]
- H-Aero
- H-Aero LTA-based launch systems for Mars exploration,[79] with development taking place via terrestrial high-altitude platforms. The first systems were tested by 2021.[80]Шаблон:Better source needed
Balloons
A geostationary balloon satellite (GBS) flies in the stratosphere (Шаблон:Cvt above sea level) at a fixed point over the Earth's surface. At that altitude the air has 1/10 of its density is at sea level. A GBS could be used to provide broadband Internet access over a large area.[81] One prior project was the Google's Project Loon, which envisioned using helium-filled high-altitude balloons.
Rotorcraft
- Boeing A160 Hummingbird
- The Boeing A160 Hummingbird is a rotorcraft produced by Boeing.[82] First flown in 2002, the program had goals of a 24-hour endurance, and 30,000 ft (9,100 m) altitude, but was abandoned in December 2012.
References
Further reading
Шаблон:Radio station ITU Шаблон:Emerging technologies
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- Radio stations and systems ITU
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